Western History 170: How did the British presence in India evolve over the 19th century?

The British presence in India dates back to the year 1600 and the formation of the East India Company (EIC).  In 1615 the company took control of its first Indian territory in Bombay. The resources of the company spread as it consolidated its influence in the lucrative spice trade. 

Map of the Global Spice Trade c. 1700 source 17QQ.com

The company was somewhat of a monopoly in its early years In India but in the 18^th century it started to face more competition.  Its trade power was challenged by the Dutch and the Portuguese but by the 18^th century the latter in particular was waning.

In 1748 English and French interests clashed in India as a part of the broader War of the Austrian Succession. Nine years late Sir Robert Clive’s British and East India forces defeated  the Nawab of Bengal  (a French ally) at the Battle of Plassey thereby securing control of all of Bengal for the East India Company. Future success followed for the EIC with a further victory over the Marathas in 1792. This extended the company’s influence to Mysore

Picture of Warren Hastings - Controversial British Governor in India during the 1780s. He had a genuine affection for the country but fell out with rival British authorities who accused him of mismanagement and corruption. His trial that followed was the longest in British political history to date resulting in his acquittal. Picture Source: Open Magazine

However  the Company's rule was brutal and  often ran afoul of cultural and ethnic sensitivities.  There was also a tendency to completely  disregard of traditional Caste concerns.  A mutiny by Indian troops serving under company authority broke at Vellore in 1806. 

Vellore Mutiny source: India Today

The Vellore rebellion was put down but fighting continued on other fronts with Britain supporting the Company waging war troops in Maratha to safeguard the Northern boundary of their domain.

Scene from the Siege of Delhi during the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857. Source: History Net

High land taxes, ongoing corruption that favoured the elites, and the introduction of unpopular British social practices worsened the impasse between the local population and the company. The British were over reliant on Sepoys  (Indian troops fighting on behalf of the British) to fight their battles and police the vast territory. The  rifts that had manifested themselves at Vellore had not been resolved.

Scene from Sepoy Mutiny. There is some debate about the name of the mutiny – many in India see it as the First war of Independence.  source: Webcourses@UCF

All of this reached a head with the introduction of the 1853 Enfield Rifle, that fired Minni balls, but made use of pre-greased paper cartridges. To load the rifle the Sepoys had to bite the cartridge to release the powder. A rumour broke out that the grease was made of beef and pork product. The former was offensive to Hindu troops  the latter to the Muslims. The authorities tried to address the issue but concerns persisted. Anger mounted and on May 10^th 1857 emotions spilled over with rebellion breaking out against the company's authority. This was the beginning of the bloody Sepoy Mutiny of 1857.

Brutality was endemic on both sides with fighting lasting for over two yea before it was finally put down by British troops. While there were six thousand British casualties it is believed that the Indian death toll that was augmented by both famine and disease may have reached a number as high as 800,000. 

The British Raj in 1860 Source: Inquiries Journal

From an administration perspective the rebellion brought to an end Company rule in India. Power was transferred to the Crown via the Government of India Act of 1858  with British hard line reprisals ending resistance and bringing an an end the declining Mughal  Empire. Well over a century of Company misrule was replaced by the British Raj.

In 1877 Queen Victoria was declared Empress of India with the Raj over time emerging as the center piece of a growing Empire - the so-called Crown Jewel. The Indian Civil Service (ICS) was established in 1858 to administer the territory. It employed many Indians in various functionary niches but all high positions until as late as 1930 was the preserve of the British. Naturally this fostered resentment even as parts of the sub-continent enjoyed an upswing in economic fortunes.

The Indian Congress Party was formed in 1885 to agitate for Independent Indian nationhood. Their strength would grow with the final aim of statehood  being realized in the next century.

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