10 Quick Facts about the New Testament

 

1.       It contains 27 books that are divided into four categories: Gospels, Acts, Epistles and Revelations. Number of books in each category are four, one, twenty one and one respectively.

2.       It contains over 180,000 words, 7959 verses and 260 Chapters.  It makes up 75% of the Christian bible. The other 75% is the Old Testament.

3.       There are four Gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. Luke is the longest of the four (19,482 words) and Mark the shortest (11,304 Marks).

4.       Although Matthew appears first in the New Testament. It is believed that Mark was written first. Some scholars disagree though with this mainstream assertion and believe that both Luke and Matthew preceded Mark and are derived from a lost Q source..

5.       The Gospels tell the story of Christ – his life  and ministering, death and resurrection.

6.       The first three Gospels - Matthew, Mark and Luke – have a similar style and appear to come from the same or a related source. They are known as the synoptic gospels. Best approximate dates for writing Mark - 70CE, Matthew and Luke – 80CE, John – 100CE.

7.       Most scholars believe the gospels were a product of a school of thought rather than a single character.

8.       All the Gospels were written in Koine Greek although there may be an Aramaic source behind this.

9.       Matthew appears to be written to a Jewish audience while Luke focuses on a Gentile readership.

10.   The Pauline Epistles are actually older than the Gospels. There are 13 books here of which the Letter to Galatians ad Second Thessalonians are the oldest (49-51 CE).

Reflections XV - On Rome

 A point that stands out when looking at the Roman Emperors is that Tiberius, Domitian and Maxentius were a lot better than their awful representations in history. While none were superstars each was radically impacted by negative propaganda. Caligula on the other hand lived up to his vile image.

Most of Rome’s military failures were reminders that it needed to accept its boundaries. Neither the Goths in the North (and East) and the Persians in Asia had any attention of acquiescing to Roman suzerainty. Since they were not a cavalry power (unlike the Mongols) or a sea empire (like the British) their boundaries had natural limitations which deterred expansion.

The history of Rome after the fall of Caesar is an ongoing saga of the debasement of the concept of citizenship. Citizenship is what held the Republic together. It withered to oblivion during the Empire until it had lost all meaning

What were the key factors leading to the collapse of the Roman Empire?

 My answer in Quora.

There were a number of factors (not just one). These include the devaluation of the currency, the outsourcing of security to third party mercenaries (barbarian troops who extracted large sums of money and land payments for their services), migration of foreign tribes westward into the Empire (Visigoths, Huns, Franks, Vandals etc), a falling work ethic, poor leadership, the splitting of the Empire into the wealthy East and the poor West, internal strife, the dilution of the notion of the responsible citizen, and conflicting ideological/theological struggles as Christianity replaced paganism.

It is worth noting that the Western Empire collapsed almost a millennium before that of the East Byzantine Empire (476 vs 1453 AD). Many of these factors listed above are more relevant to the West. The East was weakened by the Arab invasion, conflicts with the Crusaders and ultimately the rise of first the Seljuks then Ottoman Turks. There was also considerable infighting between the various Byzantine royals.

If you see any of these analogous trends in today’s contemporary world, Be concerned. Very concerned.

How did Rome Rise to Power?

 (My answer in Quora)

The mantle of Western Civilization so brandished by the Greeks would be transferred to their natural successors the Romans.

The Twins Romulus and Remus being suckled by a wolf. A key founding myth in the history of Rome source: Britannica

Legend has it that the Rome itself was built by Romulus who killed his brother Remus after arguing about the site location for the city. Virgil saw the Romans as the descendants of the city state of Troy who had so valiantly (but ultimately unsuccessfully) battled the Achaean Greeks in the period between 1194-1184 BC in what was to be known as the Trojan Wars (The same conflict described by Homer in his epic poem The Iliad). However it is more likely that the Romans emerged from a settlement population of Italian origin who developed along the Tiber River.

The First Roman King was indeed named Romulus (753-716 BC) and early Roman history was very much entangled with the history of the Etruscans who around 900-500 BC were the dominant group on the Italian peninsula

The Rape of Lucretia source: Art UK

However the kingdom collapsed in 509 BC with L. Tarquin Superbus serving as its last monarch. Events leading to the downfall of the last king were bought to a head by a revolt of the nobility. This followed the saga of the rape of the aristocrat woman Lucretia by the king’s son. It would be replaced by the Republic.

The Roman Senate source: US History.org

The early Roman Republic warred heavily with its Etruscan rivals with the latter eventually acquiescing in the 4th century BC (the fall of Veii). The Republic grew from its local position in the Latium to eventual domination of all of Italy. The Latin States, the Samnites (in three wars), the Volsci and the Greek colonies would all succumb to the might of the Romans.

The Romans would also secure victory against a league of Greek States that included Epirus and Syracuse in the Pyrrhic War (280-275 BC). However not all these advances occurred without setback. In 390 BC the Gauls sacked Rome and the city was inflicted with civil unrest. There is a belief that this period coincided with a time of anarchy (although the extent of the anarchy is still very much in dispute).

The greatest challenge to Rome’s authority in the Republic Era came from the rival power of Carthage (a Phoenician colonial population located in Modern Day Tunisia). Three Punic Wars were fought over a period of one hundred and twenty years between Rome and its Carthaginian rival for domination of the Western Mediterranean.

In the first of these Wars the Romans invaded Sicily (a region which was within the Carthaginian sphere of influence). The Romans drew first blood with a victory at Agrigentum but the war was largely a Naval engagement with Roman use of boarding bridges (hooked up between ships) deciding the conflict in their favour.

In the Second Punic War Hannibal of Carthage crossed the Alps and attacked Rome from the North with an assorted army that included an elephant contingent and inflicted defeats on Rome and her allies in the Battles of Trebia, Lake Trasimene and Cannae (Hannibal’s greatest victory). However Carthage could not build on their gains and lacked the resources (mostly military men) to consolidate their foothold.

Campaigns of the Second Punic War Source: World History Encyclopedia

The powers in Carthage refused to supply Hannibal with more troops (as did Hitler with Rommel in North Africa over two thousand years later) and the momentum flipped in favour of Rome who under the skillful leadership of the general Scipio Africanus defeated Carthage on their North African home ground at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC.

The Romans had already struck a decisive blow against Carthage in Spain at the Battle of Metaurus in 207 BC, Carthage sued for peace and were heavily punished by the Romans who were now in full control of the Western Mediterranean.

Hard-line Romans, particularly Cato the Elder (famed for his Carthage must be destroyed speeches) advocated for a war with Carthage and in the Third Punic War (the shortest of the three) Carthage was finally defeated and the city raised to the ground. A treaty negotiated in favour of Rome left the former Phoenician colony powerless.

The Growth of the Roman Republic source: Facts and Details

Roman attention was turned toward Macedonia. The two powers had already fought a war between 214-205 BC but it was in the Second War fought between 200-196 BC that Roman victory was most pronounced (The Romans would defeat the Macedonians in a third war fought between 172-168 BC as well).

Roman hegemony was challenged by the Galatians (in Magnesia), the Lusitanians (ancestors of the Portuguese), Pergamon, Rhodes, the Boii and various Iberian groups but with limited success only.

In 146 BC the Romans sacked Corinthia, dissolved the Achaean League, and officially stamped their footprint as successors to the Greeks in carrying the mantle of Western Civilization.

Source: A History of the Roman Republic Klaus Bringmann

Roman Republic | Definition, Dates, History, Government, Map, & Facts

Roman Republic, (509–27 bce), the ancient state centred on the city of Rome that began in 509 bce, when the Romans replaced their monarchy with elected magistrates, and lasted until 27 bce, when the Roman Empire was established. A brief treatment of the Roman Republic follows. For full treatment, see ancient Rome. The early Roman Republic (509–264 bce) and the preceding regal period (753–509 bce) are the most poorly documented periods of Roman history. Historical writing in Rome did not begin until the late 3rd century bce, when Rome had already completed its conquest of Italy, established itself as a

https://www.britannica.com/place/Roman-Republic

Are Israel and Judah the same?

(Asked on Quora).

No they aren’t. When King Solomon, the son of David, died he was succeeded by his son Rehoboam in 930 BCE. Unfortunately Rehoboam proved to be a terrible ruler and soon afterward the country split into two kingdoms - Israel in the North (consisting of ten tribes) and Judah in the South. The former included the cities of Schechem and Samaria. The latter contained the city of Jerusalem and was comprised of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin. It is from Judah that the word Jew originates.

Judah would continue to be governed largely by rulers from the House of David (although some have disputed this). The Kingdom of Israel existed from 930 -772 BCE and was finally destroyed by the Assyrians (leading to the mythology of the Ten Lost tribes). Judah survived until the Babylonian exile of 538 BCE that followed the destruction of the First Temple.

Map: Jewish Virtual Library

Which civilization was the equivalent of America in the ancient world?

I answered this on Quora.

Very interesting question. There are several levels that this can be analyzed. The US today is a large pluralistic society and a constitutional republic. It has a separation of powers with many of institutions operating along democratic lines at the local, state and federal level. Its value system is based on the fusion of Greek Rationalism, Scottish Enlightenment Empiricism and Judeo-Christian Ethics. Economically the US pivots around a Free Market systems with various public sector and government checks. When suffused these attributes acting as one make it a rather unique continuous experiment in the history of our species.

Having said that its still worthwhile drawing comparisons certainly in the realm of international footprint, the will to power and cultural influence. With this in mind I would argue that Four Civilizations bear somewhat of a comparison.

a. Ancient Egypt - Dominated North Africa and influenced much of the politics of the Levant (although to a lesser extent) prior to the birth of Christ. Together with Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, can be seen as one of the primordial driver of the early Western Civilization.

b. Ancient Greece - Its city state model existing within a broader civilization model is roughly equivalent to the State-Federal model that defines the US (although I agree that such an analogy has problems…it was no way near as centralized until at least the era of Alexander the Great). However it impacted a great deal of the Mediterranean and existed as a bulwark to the civilizations of the East. Its intellectual accomplishments and cultural reach certainly resonate in parallel with the US.

c. Ancient Rome - The early Republic had a remarkably similar structure to the US (this is no coincidence of course as the Founding Fathers of the US were greatly influenced by Rome) and while Empire would dominate the later civilization, Rome’s capacity to exert its strength over an extremely broad platform made it a legitimate superpower for its age. At the height of its prowess it was also largely unrivaled on a military level and greatly dictated matters that defined the ancient economies of its realm.

d. Achaemenid Persia - Persia, prior to the Greek resurgence, was the Near East’s sole superpower. Like the US it was extremely tolerant of a variety of beliefs and expanded to include a smorgasbord of metaphysical nesting in a framework of tolerance.

However even after looking at all four of these (and putting aside such obvious distinctions as monarchy and rule by tyrants) I would argue that the US is furthermore distinct. Unlike these other powers the American Republic is not primarily driven by a continuous need to force an Imperialistic agenda beyond the bedrock nation state. Its tendency is to turn away not embrace Empire and although its foreign policy has been influenced by economic considerations it is not by nature a power of occupation. Certainly not in the long run. The same cannot be said for all the other Ancient Power Civilizations.

Western History 59: Why was the Silk Road important?

The Silk Road was a serious of road and transportation networks that linked China to Europe via the passageway of the Middle East. The road’s origin goes back to about 3000 BCE but its function as a conduit for both goods and knowledge exchange between the East and Europe has been pivotal to the development of the West. The Ancient Romans used the Silk Road to trade with the Han Chinese after the full road was opened to the West in 200 BCE. This allowed the Romans to gain access to the Red Sea and the important Spice Route.

Silk itself first appeared in Rome in 1 CE at about the same time that glass blowing techniques were first developed and exported from Roman Syria. The Roman’s used the route to sell goods to the East and for much of the 1^st and 2^nd century CE the stability of the road was maintained by the four Great Empires that used it – the Romans, Parthians, Kushan and Chinese.

After the 7^th century CE the road was used by the Arabs to both expand on their conquests and bring to Europe much needed technology from the East.

Gunpowder, developed by the Chinese, entered Europe via the Silk Road in the 13^th century, as did porcelain, the compass, playing cards, weaving technology and paper.

The explorer Marco Polo made contact with the court of Kublai Khan using the Silk Road in the 13^th century on the heels of the Roads renaissance that was characterized by the Pax Mongolica.

Unfortunately by 1400 CE China closed her borders to European foreigners curtailing the efficacy of the Silk Road as a trading artery although on a positive note this appears to have had the net effect of stimulating the great sea driven exploration drive that followed closely soon afterward.

Western History 54: What was the Byzantine Empire?

The Byzantium Empire or the Eastern Roman Empire had its origin in the city of Constantinople founded in 330 CE by Constantine on the Ancient Greek City of Byzantium. It grew into an important center in and around 395 CE following the split of the Roman Empire into East and West portions and unlike the West which fell in 476 CE persisted and indeed flourished until the fall of Constantinople to Arab forces in 1453.

The greatest Byzantine Emperor was Justinian who took power in 526 CE and then advanced to re-conquer parts of the Fallen Western Roman Empire – in Italy, North Africa and Spain – from the various Germanic tribes. It was Justinian who codified Roman Law into one document and built the incredible Hagia Sofia Church in Constantinople (it is a Mosque today).

However his gains were short lived. The Lombards drove the Byzantines out of Italy in 568 and from 610 onwards considerable territory in Syria, Palestine and Egypt was lost to the expanding Muslim forces. The Empire would also change its language from Latin to Greek under the 7^th century Emperor Heraclius.

Muslim attacks persisted from land and Sea but Constantinople held firm beating off the invaders in 693 and 717-718. Territory continued to be lost to the Arabs although Asia Minor was recovered in 721.

In 726 Leo III banned the use of Icons in the Empire as graven images of the divine–the use of Icons was restored in 843 following what would be later called the ‘Inconoclast Controversy’.

In the 10^th century the Byzantines struggled against a new enemy the Bulgars who overran Thrace but failed to take Constantinople. The Russians also attacked the Byzantines but suffered the loss of their fleet in 941.

However it wasn’t until the reign of Basil II that the Byzantines enjoyed a renaissance. This new Emperor would retake Syria from the Muslims in 995 and finally drive the Bulgars out of Greece in the following year earning himself the epithet in 1014 after his final destruction of the Bulgaroktonos (Bulgar slayer).

Nevertheless the Byzantines could not hang on to their gains after Basil’s death. In 1055 they lost Southern Italy to the Normans and then twenty years later surrendered Syria to the Muslims. The Turks secured a major victory against the Byzantines in 1071 at Manzikert. Thrace fell in 1087 and Asia Minor was lost in 1179.

Even Constantinople would eventually be occupied by Western knights who succeeded in conquering the city in 1204 and establishing a Latin Empire in the newly acquired territory.

Constantinople was restored to the Byzantine Empire in 1261 but its fall in 1453 at the hands of the Ottoman Turks signalled the end of an Empire that at one time represented the essence of what was Rome.

Western History 53: Which groups were involved in the Great Migration (or the Barbarian Invasion)?

From the Fourth century CE onwards both the Western and Eastern Roman Empires were subjected to vast hordes of migrants people of Eastern and Northern origin. Eventually these groups would bring down the Western Empire, drive back the Celtic and Latin populations and re-draw the political map of the west. Such groups included:

1. Visigoths – Western branch of the Gothic people. The Visigoths defeated the Romans at Adrianople (378 CE) and then under their leader Alaric sacked Rome in 410 CE. They moved into France but were driven out by the Franks in 507 CE eventually establishing a kingdom in Spain. Visigoth power in Spain was ended by the Arabs/Berbers in 711/712 CE.
2. Ostrogoths – Eastern branch of the Gothic people. The Ostrogoths traded heavily with the Romans migrating westwards under pressure from the Huns. They would eventually conquer the Italian kingdom of Odoacer establishing their own power base under Theodoric the Great. Ostrogoth power would deteriorate in the face of Byzantine advancement in Italy in the 6^th century CE with much of its population eventually being absorbed into the Lombard kingdom
3. Vandals – An Eastern Germanic people the Vandals swept westward from territory in Poland establishing kingdoms in Spain and later North Africa. They clashed with the Gothic groups but continued moving westward under Hunnic pressure.  In 429 CE they entered North Africa under the king Genseric and in 455 CE sacked Rome. However their power collapsed in 533-34 when they were defeated by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian in the Vandalic Wars. The great vandal legacy today resonates in the word ‘vandalism’ which has become synonymous with senseless destruction and the defacing of artwork (a linkage that evokes the 455 CE sacking).
4. Franks – A Germanic Group who would succeed the Romans as the eventual masters of much of France, Germany and the Lower Countries from the 5^th – 9^th century CE. The Franks would emerge as the possible successors of the Western Roman Empire through the legacy of the Merovingians and the Carolingians.
5. Saxons - Germanic tribe dominant in the low Countries, Jutland and Northern Germany. The Saxons and another tribe the Angles would eventually conquer most of England following the collapse of Roman Rule on the island in the 5^th century CE. Much of their gains would occur at the expense of the local Celtic groups.
6. Huns – A Nomadic group from the Caucus regions. It is often argued that the Huns started the great Migration by their Western drive. The greatest Hunnic warrior was Atilla who became co-ruler with his brother Bleda in 437 CE and sole ruler in 445. His forces dominated much of the interior of Eastern Europe and gained strength as they pressed into Gaul.  He plundered the Western Roman Empire and extorted the East  but was defeated in 451 by a coalition force led by the Roman General Aetius at the Battle of Catalaunian Planes. In 452 he invaded Northern Italy but a year later died of haemorrhage on his wedding Night. Hunnic dominance in Central and Eastern Europe would eventually be broken in 454 with the defeat of the Huns by a tribal grouping that included the Gepids, Heruli, Rugi, Scirii and Subebi.
7. Burgundians – A Vandal group that were one time allies of the Huns.  They are thought to have originated in Poland and eventually settled into the region of France that bears their name.
8. Lombards – Another Germanic people who would dominate the Italian peninsula from 558 to 774 CE. The Kingdom of Italy that they founded reached its peak under the rule of Liutprand in the 8^th century. 

Western History 52: What did Rome contribute to Western Civilization?

It would be a great oversight to assume that the Romans were nothing more than a military power as their contribution to Western Civilization is immense. In architecture they were known for their Domes, Frescoes and Mosaics. They were accomplished road builders and graced their domains with Aqueducts (to transport water) and viaduct bridges (that spanned valleys). Roman stadiums and Amphitheaters were the ancestors of today’s modern entertainment venues.

In addition the Romans distinguished themselves in wine making, central heating, public baths and cement/mortar pioneering.

Their language (Latin), alphabet and legal system impacted all civilizations that fell under their hegemony and they had a significant impact in such differing areas as the idea of the three-course meal, the Julian Calendar and several yearly festivals.

The following is a list of twelve Romans (other than the military figures described earlier) who helped enrich this great culture.

Table 11 Roman Cultural Figures of Note

Figure of Distinction	Significance
Agrippa Marcus Vispania (64 BCE –12 BCE)	Architect. General. Masterminded the Naval victory at Actium (31 BCE). Built many baths, porticoes and gardens. Helped transform Rome into a Marble city.
Cicero (106-43 BCE)	Orator, Lawyer, Political theorist of great distinction. Enemy of Mark Anthony. Famous for his Series of Speeches.
Horace (65-8 BCE)	Lyric poet. Lived at the time of Augustus. Known for his hexameter verses and Lambic Poetry.
Juvenal (1st century CE)	Poet and writer. Also known for his satire – Satires of Juvenal (Five Books).
Livy (c.64 BCE-17CE)	Historian. Lived at the time of the Early Julio-Claudian Emperors. Served as an advisor to Claudius. Most famous work is the History of Rome.
Ovid (43BCE –17/18 CE)	Great canonical poet. Wrote the classic Metamorphoses. Clashed with the Emperor Augustus.
Pliny the Elder (23 CE-79CE)	Author, scientist and philosopher. Wrote an encyclopaedic work (the forerunner of modern encyclopaedias) known as Naturalis Historia. Influenced his nephew Pliny the Younger.
Seneca the Younger (c. 4 BCE to 65 CE)	Stoic Philosopher. Dramatist and Statesman. Important Figure in the Silver Age of Latin Literature. Stoicism argued for the importance of virtue in the face of natures trials and tribulations.
Tacitus (c. 56 CE – 117 CE)	Historian and Senator. Detailed events from 14 to 70 CE.
Virgil (70 BCE- 19 BCE)	Poet of the Augustan Period. Most famous work is the epic poem the Aenid that was modeled after Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey.
Vitruvius (c. 80 BCE- c. 15 BCE)	Very influential architect. Wrote the multi-volume work De architecture.

Western History 51: What were the key events on the Road to the Fall of the Empire?

The Roman Empire enjoyed a resurgence in power under Constantine. However after his death in 337 CE the Empire was once again beset by internal conflict as well as attack from enemies at its peripheries. The following table highlights some of the key events that preceded the collapse of the Western Empire in 476 CE.

Table 10 Key Events leading to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire

Event	Significance
Death of Constantine (337 CE)	Division of the Empire amongst his three sons – Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans. Conflict between sons.
Reign of Julian Apostate (361-364 CE)	Julian tries to restore Paganism as the central religion of Rome. Attempt will fail.
Defeat at the Battle of Adrianople (378 CE)	Roman loss and the death of the Emperor Valens at the hands of the Goths symbolizes reflects the ascendancy of  the Germanic Tribes. Soon afterwards (402 CE) the capital city is moved to Ravenna. Will remain there until 476 CE.
Edict of Thessalonica (380 CE)	Emperor Theodosius I declares Christianity to be the State Church of the Empire. In 394 CE Theodosius will briefly re-unite the East and West Empires.
Rome is sacked by Alaric (410 CE)	Visigoth king Alaric I sacks Rome – an important event in the decline
Atilla the Hun attacks Eastern Rome (447 CE)	Atilla will ravage both the Eastern and western Empire  before being defeated at the Battle of Chalons in 451 CE by an alliance of the Romans with the Visigoths.
The Ricimer Period (457-472 CE)	The manipulative general Ricimer has de facto control over a Western Roman Empire teetering on the brink of collapse
War against the Vandals (468 CE)	Vandals join the Gothic, tribes and Huns as another group plundering a moribund Western Roman Empire.
Official Year of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 CE)	Odovacar a Germanic general ousts the politician Orestes from power and then forces the last Emperor Romulus Augustulus to abdicate. The Western Empire is no more.

Western History 50: How did the early church emerge in Rome?

Christianity would arise from humble foundations to become a dominant force in the Roman Empire. The religion itself had Jewish origins that were centred in Jerusalem and early community leaders included Peter, James and John.

Paul of Tarsus, probably more than any man, helped spread the gospels to the Gentiles and thereby established Christianity as a religion outside the Jewish context.

Christianity incorporated the Jewish Bible in its canon – via the Septuagint (Greek translation) and the Targum (Aramaic translation) – but added the Letters of Paul and the Gospels to its liturgy. Christ based theology replaced Mosaic Law although there was a strong focus on the Ten Commandments and the Golden Rule.

Baptism was added as a practice, the Divinity of  Jesus Christ was stressed and a Church hierarchy was organized. Human relations were emphasized and a complex eschatology would feature prominently.

The spread of the Church in the first four centuries of its existence largely centred around the Mediterranean area although by 600 CE it had come to dominate North Africa, Spain, Central Europe, the British Isles, Turkey going eastwards into Syria.

Edward Gibbons in his classic The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire provides an interesting overview as to the success of the Church. His key points are:

(1)  The inflexible, and, if we may use the expression, the intolerant zeal of the Christians, derived, it is true, from the Jewish religion, but purified from the narrow and unsocial spirit which, instead of inviting, had deterred the Gentiles from embracing the law of Moses;

(2)  The doctrine of a future life, improved by every additional circumstance which could give weight and efficacy to that important truth;

(3)   The miraculous powers ascribed to the primitive church;

(4)   The pure and austere morals of the Christians;

(5)   The union and discipline of the Christian republic, which gradually formed an independent and increasing state in the heart of the Roman Empire.

Western History 49: Who was Constantine and what was the Edict of Milan?

Constantine I was declared Caesar in the West in 306 CE. His father had been a co-emperor and the young Constantine had earned his spurs campaigning with his father in Britain. In 312 CE Constantine’s forces overcame those of his rival Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge. According to the historian Lactanius, Constantine had a dream the night before the battle in which God advised him to place the slanted X with the Christ figure (Chi Rho) on the shields of his soldiers.

His soon to be victorious forces did so and took the sign as a positive message from God. In 313 CE Constantine pushed through the Edict of Milan legalizing Christianity in the Empire and he himself converted soon afterward to the faith. Constantine was both an able general and a strong administrator. He not only defeated the forces of Maxentius but put down another rebellion by Maximian in 310 CE and after a series of battles consolidated all of the Roman Empire under his authority when he defeated his last rival Licinius in 324 CE.

Constantine’s reign represented a significant turning point that would ensure the growing domination of Christianity within the Empire. In 324 CE he founded the city of Constantinople (modern day Istanbul) that was dedicated in his honour six years later. Although he patronized Christianity, Constantine was astute in realizing that he could not transform the Empire overnight and still incorporated many of the pagan traditions within his realm of power. The Arch of Constantine, built in 315 CE, is replete with pagan imagery.

Western History 48: - Who were the Severan and Military Emperors?

The early decline of the Roman Empire was hinted at during the turbulent reigns of Caligula, Nero and Domitian. However the era of the Good Emperors provided a much necessary respite that would unfortunately not continue. Commodus, the son of Marcus Arurelius was a poor and malicious ruler. Septimus Severus, founder of the Severan dynasty took power in 193 CE (the Year of the Five Emperors). 

He defeated the Gauls at Lugdunum and fought successfully against the Old Enemy in the East (the Parthians) but his reign was characterized by the persecution of the Jews and Christians. An invasion of Scotland was cut short by his death in 211 CE. Soon afterwards fortunes began to decline in the Empire. Plague, Economic Depression, invasion and Civil war threatened and none of Severus’ successors – Caracalla, Geta, Macrinus, Elgabalus and Alexander Severus – proved capable of stopping the slide. 

By 235 CE the military was in effective control of the Imperial office but it administered an Empire that was fragmenting. As of 268 CE the Empire was now a composite of three parts – The Gallic Empire (Provinces of Spain, Britannia and Hispania), the Palmyrene Empire (Syria, Palestina and Egypt) and the Italian portion.

Strong leaders like Aurelian (270 –274 CE), the famed soldier Emperor temporarily reunited the portions but it was only under Diocletian that a solution for resolving the power dynamics was implemented.

Known as the Tetrachy – rule of four, the model of power sharing divided the Empire into two parts – East and West. Each part would have their own emperor and a junior emperor (the official successor) for a total of four rulers overall. The major emperors were also known as the Augusti and the methodology behind the re-design was to ensure that Emperors would succeed on merit.

Roman territory was also further sub-divided  for administration purposes into more manageable units but these changes seemed more to cover up a system in decline than actually reverse the trend. Infighting would rear its head and the Empire struggled with economic inflation that was poorly handled by wage and price fixing. At the same time Diocletian upped his persecution of the Christians and demanded that soldiers of the Christian faith take up a Roman God. This act further impacted a system in deterioration.

Western History 47: Who were the Good Emperors?

There were five good Emperors who followed the Flavians – Nerva (96-98CE), Trajan (98-117 CE), Hadrian (117-138 CE), Antonius Pius (138-161 CE) and Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE).

 Nerva was more of a placeholder after the torrid period of Domitian’s reign. However it was under Trajan that Empire reached its furthest extent. A Spaniard by birth, Trajan was both a general and a statesman. He restored much of the power of the Senate, allowed for a greater freedom of speech and took over the key role of Chief Magistrate. Like his predecessor Nerva he worked to improve the lot of the poor especially that of the children. Education reform was a key priority.

Trajan’s adopted son Hadrian was a patron of the art but did believe in extending the Empire like Trajan did through Military conquest. He was more tolerant of Christians than the earlier Emperors but was not all hesitant in putting down the Jewish rebellion (Bar Kochba revolt) with brutality. Roman forces withdrew from Assyria, Mesopotamia and Armenia as the Empire became less focused on expansion in the East.

Hadrian focused on fortifying Roman territory in Germany and Britain (where he built the well known Hadrian’s Wall to safeguard the Province against the Picts). He also took it upon himself to visit all the provinces and extended the road system of the Empire to consolidate communication.

           

The next Emperor Antonius Pius continued the reforms especially in the areas of Jurisprudence, Government and Administration. The bureaucratic engine of the Empire was realized with Pius seeing himself as a ‘paternal autocrat’ who exercised his single ruler drive on behalf of the people.

Marcus Aurelius, the last of the Five Good Emperors was both a philosopher and a general. His work Mediations is considered a primer in Stoicism (together with the works of Cato, Cicero and Seneca) although his persecution of Christians (whom he suspected as agents of unrest) runs counter to the thoughts outlined in his writing. As a thinker Aurelius believed in a purity of life and championed the nobility of man. On the military front he fought the successful Danubian Wars, stared down a challenge to the throne (from one Lucius Verus) and seemed for all intent to have revived the expansionist drives of the Emperors prior to Hadrian.

Western History 46: Who were some of the Early Emperors?

The Emperors that immediately followed Augustus offered a mixed bag of colourful characters, tyrannical rulers, incompetents, intermixed with the occasional strong leader.

Tiberius (14-37 CE) and Caligula (37-41 CE) ruled over courts known for their decadence and suppression of dissent. Both are believed to have been murdered by the Praetorian Guard (Bodyguard of the Roman Empire) when their ostentatious behaviour threatened the integrity of the Imperial office. Claudius an uncle of Caligula, was declared Emperor by the Praetorians in 41 CE and although he wasn’t a brilliant ruler did initiate the Invasion of Britain. His forces captured the British warlord Caractacus, established a colony on the Island and dedicated a Temple in his honour.

Claudius’ successor Nero, the last of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty succeeded Claudius (who also died under suspicious circumstances) and ruled from 54-68 CE. Once again court intrigue dominated with Nero’s reign continuing the low points reached during the Age of Caligula. Anger at a loss of power drove the Pisonian conspiracy (65 CE) which followed on from the Great Fire of 64 CE. Nevertheless he the Emperor did claim victory following a successful peace treaty with the Parthians (62 CE) and the suppression of the Boudica rebellion in Britain a year earlier. The rebellion itself cost upwards of 70,000 British and Roman lives.

In 69 CE Rome had four Emperors – Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian – in a brief period of unprecedented instability. Vespasian, a general favoured by the Eastern Legions would eventually dominate establishing the Flavian dynasty. In his ten year long reign he captured Jerusalem (c. 70 CE) bringing an end to the Jewish revolt (with much brutality), ventured northwards to defeat the Gallo-Germans and increased training for civil servants, doctors and teachers. Unlike the Julio-Claudians he was not an extravagant man  and would be succeeded by his son Titus as Emperor.

Titus’ two year reign was noted for the competition of the Colosseum  and the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE (an event that destroyed the settlements of Pompeii and Herculaneum). A very competent military commander he died early as a result of a fever and was followed as Emperor by his younger brother Domitian.

Initially an outsider Domitian was intend on rivaling the Military escapades of his brother. He waged war in the Rhine land and introduced policies in Rome that were designed to reduce corruption. However he appears to have been a petty individual who cut short the advances of the General Agricola in Britain (who was fighting in the Picts in Caledonia – Modern Day Scotland).Domitian taxed the population heavily and was subsumed by a type of religious zealotry. An uneasy peace was signed with the Dacians but his unpopularity grew and in 96 CE Domitian was assassinated by an ex-slave, ending the Flavian Dynasty.

Western History 45: What was the Second Triumvirate? Who was Augustus?

The forces of Brutus and Cassius were defeated at Philippi by those of Marc Antony (a friend and ally of Caesar) and Octavian (Caesar’s adopted heir). A Second Triumvirate was born that dominated power politics in Rome. The Triumvirate consisted of Antony, Octavian and Marcus Lepidus (who would later drop off the political landscape). A point to note is that the First Triumvirate was the earlier post-Sulla alliance that consisted of Caesar, Pompey and Crassus (all of whom were now dead).

Antony, would then join forces with the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra but his forces would be smashed at the sea battle of Actium by a fleet led by Octavian’s loyal general Agrippa. Both Antony and Cleopatra would commit suicide shortly afterward leaving Octavian as the sole source of power in Rome

Octavian rule as the first Emperor of Rome taking the title of Augustus. The Roman Republic was officially dead with the Empire emerging in its place. Augustus would be venerated as a deity.

Augustus was a very competent ruler who reigned as Emperor from 27 BCE to 14 CE. He made peace with the Parthian enemy in the East, reformed the taxation system, improved road building, established a standing army and created the elite Praetorian Guard (a future player in Roman politics). Police and fire-fighting services were established and Rome expanded its territory into Hispania, Africa and Germania.

However the Romans did suffer some setbacks including a horrendous defeat at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD The three legions of Varus were ambushed and annihilated by the Cherusci, a Gothic tribe and former Roman ally. Rome would eventually vanquish Arminius (the leader of Cherusci) but the defeat at Teutoburg put a halt on Roman expansion into what is now modern day Germany

Western History 44: Who was Julius Caesar and how did Rome transcend to Empire?

Julius Caesar was a patrician Roman whose family was allied with the faction of Marius. In his younger days he had fallen foul of the Sulla and was forced to flee Rome but he returned following the death of the dictator. Like Pompey he waged war against the Mediterranean pirates and later worked his way up the Roman hierarchy by holding at different times the ranks of quaestor and praetor. 

However his greatest victories were achieved in the Gallic War that resulted in the annexation of Gaul, the great victory at Alesia (52 BCE) and victories over a host of tribes that included the Arverni, Belgae, Suebi, and Veneti amongst others. Casear also made inroads into the Rhine region and included in his campaigns two invasions of Britannia (the first was unsuccessful and the second achieved only nominal gains). The events of the Gallic War were chronicled in Caesar’s book Commentarii de Bello Gallico - a great work of Latin prose

Caesar’s successes threatened the Roman elite. In 50 BCE the Senate directed by Pompey ordered Caesar to lay down his arms and return to Rome. The Great Roman General refused and immortalized his position with the phrase Alea iacta est (the die is cast). Caesar crossed the Rubicon River and led his army into Northern Italy. Pompey and his senate support fled south. Although they outnumbered Caesar in military strength they chose not to fight. Caesar pursued Pompey forces in Spain and then chased them to Illyria defeating them at the Battle of Dyrrachium in 48 BCE before finally vanquishing his rival at Pharsalus in Greece. Pompey fled to Egypt and was assassinated. His head was given to Caesar as a reward.

The great general’s grip on power was at its height. He defeated the force’s of the Egyptian Pharaoh at the Battle of the Nile (47 BCE) and installed Cleopatra as that nation’s ruler (he would have a son with Cleopatra named Caesarion). Opposition to Caesar came from Pompey’s sons but Caesar defeated their forces at the Battle of Munda in 45 BCE.

Caesar proved to be a competent ruler whose prestige was upped by the triumphs granted to him by the Roman Senate. He reformed the army, lessened the power of the elites, introduced the Julian Calendar and ordered the rebuilding of Carthage and Corinthia. He attempted to deal with the problems that were particular to the Italian peninsula (the causes of the Social War).

In March of 44 BCE, a month after being appointed dictator-for-life, he was however assassinated by a cabal of senators that included the Cassius brothers, Brutus and Casca. Rome was immediately plunged into Civil War.

Western History 43: How did the First Triumvirate emerge?

Sulla owed much of his success to the loyalty of his troops. He took Marius’ military methods a step further and used the army to dictate state politics. He was committed to using the army as a vanguard to secure his presence domestically and was ruthless in dispensing with opposition viz. the proscripto lists and the Marian Massacres. The former placed a bounty on the heads of those who stood in defiance against him with the latter directed at the pro-Marius elements who at one time were a considerable force in Rome.

The reaction to the Sullan party grew after the death of the so-called Perpetual Dictator. A revolt by Lepidus in 77 BCE started the trend that picked up steam when rebels in Spain (including a large Marian segment) under the leadership of Sertorius declared independence from Rome. The Senate was forced to act and instructed Pompey to take the initiative. He did and by 72 BCE the Spanish opposition was bought to heel.

However Rome’s problems continued with the War of the Gladiators (known as the Third Servile War).  Led by the Thracian fighter Spartacus this gladiator army beat back four Roman legions and wreaked havoc in Central Italy before being defeated by the Roman General Crassus and later by Pompey himself (who vanquished the remnants of Spartacus’ army). Pompey would also distinguish himself in the Third Mithridatic War

Pompey and Crassus would return to Rome as victors and emerge as Consuls. However Roman politics was extremely fragmented. Pompey’s would accumulate more accolades in his campaign against the Mediterranean pirates but perhaps his greatest moment as a general occurred with his capture of Jerusalem in 63 BC an event that signified the end of Jewish independence.

The great orator Cicero uncovered a conspiracy led by the senator Catiline to overthrow the Roman Republic and replace it with an aristocratic Senate. Catiline was forced to flee and for a brief point in time Rome’s march to a new oligarchy was halted.

However an informal First Triumvirate consisting of Julius Caesar, Pompey and Crassus would emerge as the power bloc in Rome. Crassus would lose his life campaigning against the Parthian enemy in Persia (53BCE) allowing both Caesar and Pompey to consolidate their base of strength.

Western History 42: How did the Roman Republic decline?

Land Reform was a key issue in Rome that was brought to a head by the rise and fall of the Plebian Gracchus brothers. Although the brothers achieved partial success in redistributing land to the peasants their reforms would eventually be rolled back following the assassination of each brother.

The Northern Germanic Tribes would continue to harass and threaten the integrity of Rome. Two of these tribes: Cimbri and the Teutones were the most menacing and between 113-101 BCE battled Rome. A corrupt Roman oligarchy failed initially to deal with the threat with the Romans suffering a disastrous defeat at Arausio. However the rise of Gaius Marius (a man who would hold the office of consul a record seven times) signalled a change in strategy. The Roman Army was reorganized, with Marius (a hero of the Jugurthan Wars in North Africa) building up a standing force comprised largely of landless fighting fit volunteers. The concept of the Standard was introduced (the Aquila or eagle) and the cohort consisting of approximately 480 men would serve as the principal unit

Marius’ much-needed military turning point came in 102 BC. He defeated the Teutones (and their allies the Ambrones) at Aquae Sextiae but had to wait a full year before vanquishing the Cambri at Vercellae.

However the rise of Marius would be challenged by Lucius Cornelius Sulla, an ambitious general who had distinguished himself during the Social War of 90-88 BCE. This was largely a conflict in the Italian Peninsula that saw Rome emerge victorious over its Marsic and Samnite local rivals.  Sulla was a shrewd military figure who has the notable accolade of being the only person in history to successfully enter and occupy both Rome and Athens. He would emerge as a powerful dictator in Rome in 81 BC after the death of Marius and would implement draconian measures to clamp down on enemies of the state. In a sense he was an early precursor of the modern autocrat. While there is much controversy about his methods and his Machiavellian approach there is no doubt about his brilliance as a general as evident in Sulla’s victories in both Civil Wars and the Mithridatic War. He died in 78 BC following a short retirement. It is often argued that Sulla’s marches on Rome (two altogether) set the stage for Julius Caesar’s march on Rome several decades later.