What was the Akkadian Empire?

The Akkadian Empire emerged within the broader Mesopotamian civilization and, at its height, covered an area roughly comparable in size to modern-day Turkey. The founder of the empire was King Sargon the Great, who ruled from approximately 2334 to 2279 BCE. The name “Sargon” is generally understood to mean “true king” or “legitimate king.” The Akkadians were a Semitic-speaking people, and the empire brought together Akkadian-speaking populations with the various Sumerian groups and city-states of Mesopotamia.

Sargon extended his authority across much of Mesopotamia and into neighboring territories, including Elam. Akkadian became the principal administrative language of the empire, although Sumerian continued to be widely used, particularly in religious and cultural contexts. Although the empire lasted for roughly two centuries before collapsing around 2154 BCE, its political and cultural legacy was considerable. It appears to have established a model of centralized imperial rule that influenced the later Assyrian and Babylonian empires.

The empire was centered on the city of Akkad, or Agade, although its exact location remains unknown. The Akkadians inherited much of the religious tradition of the Sumerians and worshipped a pantheon of powerful deities. Among the most prominent were Anu, the god of heaven; Enlil, associated with air, authority, and divine kingship; Enki, the god of freshwater, wisdom, and creation; and Ninhursag, a mother goddess associated with the earth, fertility, and creation.

The rise of the Akkadian Empire therefore represented more than the conquest of one Mesopotamian kingdom by another. It was one of humanity’s earliest examples of a centralized territorial empire, bringing diverse peoples, languages, cities, and religious traditions under a single political authority.

The Bronze Age

Historians generally characterize the Bronze Age as the period between approximately 3300 and 1200 BCE, although the dates varied considerably by region. It was preceded by the Neolithic, followed in many regions by the transitional Copper Age (or Chalcolithic), and eventually succeeded by the Iron Age. Bronze is an alloy produced primarily by combining copper with tin, and its widespread use represented a significant advance in metallurgy.

Metalworking and the emergence and development of writing were among the defining features of the Bronze Age. Major Bronze Age civilizations and cultures flourished across Anatolia (modern-day Turkey), the Caucasus, Elam and the regions of ancient Iran, Egypt, the Levant, and Mesopotamia. These societies developed increasingly complex cities, political institutions, religious systems, and trade networks.

In Europe, Bronze Age cultures emerged in numerous regions, including the Aegean, the Bell Beaker phenomenon, the Srubnaya culture, and the Urnfield culture, among others. In East Asia, the Longshan culture and, later, the Shang Dynasty are likewise associated with the development of sophisticated Bronze Age societies.

Trade was fundamental to the functioning and prosperity of many of these civilizations. Tin, in particular, was relatively scarce in many regions where copper was abundant, making long-distance trade networks essential for the production of bronze. Bronze itself therefore played a vital role—not only as a material for tools and weapons, but also as a catalyst for expanding trade, technological innovation, political power, and cultural exchange across the ancient world.

When did the first cities emerge?

City-states evolved in part to organize and protect the agricultural domains upon which their societies depended. Most were controlled by kings or ruling elites, but they were also heavily influenced by a powerful priestly class that legitimized political authority by claiming—and at times perhaps merely feigning—direct contact with the gods. Mesopotamia, the “land between the rivers,” encompassing the Tigris and Euphrates, was home to some of the earliest city-state civilizations to flourish. Along with the Nile-based civilization of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia would have an enormous influence on the development of the Western world.

One of the earliest and most important Mesopotamian cities was Ur, whose origins may date back to the sixth millennium BCE. Located in the fertile, flood-prone region of southern Mesopotamia, Ur was surrounded by defensive walls and developed an extensive network of streets, roads, temples, and drainage systems. Its prosperity was enhanced by its strategic position near the Persian Gulf, making it an important center for regional trade and maritime commerce.

One of Ur’s greatest rulers was King Ur-Nammu, who reigned from approximately 2047 to 2030 BCE. He is credited with constructing the monumental ziggurat of Ur, a massive raised religious structure with a distinctive terraced, step-like form. He also commissioned temples and undertook major improvements to the region’s irrigation infrastructure. Ur-Nammu is additionally remembered for one of the earliest known written legal codes.

At the height of its power, Ur may have had a population numbering in the tens of thousands, although precise estimates remain uncertain. Its fortunes eventually declined amid political upheaval, environmental pressures, changing trade patterns, and repeated conflicts and invasions. By the first millennium BCE, Ur had largely ceased to function as a major urban center and was eventually abandoned.

Nevertheless, Ur features prominently in biblical tradition. In the Book of Genesis, “Ur of the Chaldeans” is identified as the birthplace of Abraham, although the precise historical location referred to by the biblical text remains debated. Ur is also mentioned in the Book of Nehemiah.

Ur, however, was far from the only Mesopotamian city of importance. Eridu, Lagash, Nippur, Sippar, and Uruk all played significant roles in the political, religious, economic, and cultural history of the region. Together, these city-states formed the foundation of one of humanity’s earliest urban civilizations.

When did the Agricultural Revolution begin?

Conventionally, the Agricultural Revolution is regarded as ground zero in the birth of civilization. By regimenting and increasing food production and yields, the revolution freed up time and resources for other human endeavors. This included the development of a wide range of artisan pursuits, which in turn helped galvanize a technological revolution that continues to this day.

One could argue that the Agricultural Revolution was, in a sense, the forebearer of our modern world. Yet the shift toward planned agriculture—which in the West involved the domestication and cultivation of wheat, barley, rye, and oats, along with the domestication of various livestock—was not without its disadvantages.

Some feminists, for example, view it as a pivotal moment in the emergence of patriarchy. Others argue that agriculture was environmentally destructive, resource-intensive, and increasingly dependent on rigid social hierarchies that, in some societies, facilitated or institutionalized slavery. The establishment of permanent settlements and clearly defined territories also contributed to conditions in which conflict and territorial warfare became increasingly difficult to avoid.

While some of these characteristics endured, many were more representative of the early stages of an evolving social and economic system than of agriculture itself. The Agricultural Revolution ultimately cemented the expansion and success of our species, freeing increasing numbers of people from the immediate demands of subsistence and creating the surplus upon which increasingly complex societies could be built.

In doing so, it opened the door to possibilities that are now so evident across the landscape of human achievement.

Reflections XV - On Rome

 A point that stands out when looking at the Roman Emperors is that Tiberius, Domitian and Maxentius were a lot better than their awful representations in history. While none were superstars each was radically impacted by negative propaganda. Caligula on the other hand lived up to his vile image.

Most of Rome’s military failures were reminders that it needed to accept its boundaries. Neither the Goths in the North (and East) and the Persians in Asia had any attention of acquiescing to Roman suzerainty. Since they were not a cavalry power (unlike the Mongols) or a sea empire (like the British) their boundaries had natural limitations which deterred expansion.

The history of Rome after the fall of Caesar is an ongoing saga of the debasement of the concept of citizenship. Citizenship is what held the Republic together. It withered to oblivion during the Empire until it had lost all meaning

What were the key factors leading to the collapse of the Roman Empire?

 My answer in Quora.

There were a number of factors (not just one). These include the devaluation of the currency, the outsourcing of security to third party mercenaries (barbarian troops who extracted large sums of money and land payments for their services), migration of foreign tribes westward into the Empire (Visigoths, Huns, Franks, Vandals etc), a falling work ethic, poor leadership, the splitting of the Empire into the wealthy East and the poor West, internal strife, the dilution of the notion of the responsible citizen, and conflicting ideological/theological struggles as Christianity replaced paganism.

It is worth noting that the Western Empire collapsed almost a millennium before that of the East Byzantine Empire (476 vs 1453 AD). Many of these factors listed above are more relevant to the West. The East was weakened by the Arab invasion, conflicts with the Crusaders and ultimately the rise of first the Seljuks then Ottoman Turks. There was also considerable infighting between the various Byzantine royals.

If you see any of these analogous trends in today’s contemporary world, Be concerned. Very concerned.

How did Rome Rise to Power?

 (My answer in Quora)

The mantle of Western Civilization so brandished by the Greeks would be transferred to their natural successors the Romans.

The Twins Romulus and Remus being suckled by a wolf. A key founding myth in the history of Rome source: Britannica

Legend has it that the Rome itself was built by Romulus who killed his brother Remus after arguing about the site location for the city. Virgil saw the Romans as the descendants of the city state of Troy who had so valiantly (but ultimately unsuccessfully) battled the Achaean Greeks in the period between 1194-1184 BC in what was to be known as the Trojan Wars (The same conflict described by Homer in his epic poem The Iliad). However it is more likely that the Romans emerged from a settlement population of Italian origin who developed along the Tiber River.

The First Roman King was indeed named Romulus (753-716 BC) and early Roman history was very much entangled with the history of the Etruscans who around 900-500 BC were the dominant group on the Italian peninsula

The Rape of Lucretia source: Art UK

However the kingdom collapsed in 509 BC with L. Tarquin Superbus serving as its last monarch. Events leading to the downfall of the last king were bought to a head by a revolt of the nobility. This followed the saga of the rape of the aristocrat woman Lucretia by the king’s son. It would be replaced by the Republic.

The Roman Senate source: US History.org

The early Roman Republic warred heavily with its Etruscan rivals with the latter eventually acquiescing in the 4th century BC (the fall of Veii). The Republic grew from its local position in the Latium to eventual domination of all of Italy. The Latin States, the Samnites (in three wars), the Volsci and the Greek colonies would all succumb to the might of the Romans.

The Romans would also secure victory against a league of Greek States that included Epirus and Syracuse in the Pyrrhic War (280-275 BC). However not all these advances occurred without setback. In 390 BC the Gauls sacked Rome and the city was inflicted with civil unrest. There is a belief that this period coincided with a time of anarchy (although the extent of the anarchy is still very much in dispute).

The greatest challenge to Rome’s authority in the Republic Era came from the rival power of Carthage (a Phoenician colonial population located in Modern Day Tunisia). Three Punic Wars were fought over a period of one hundred and twenty years between Rome and its Carthaginian rival for domination of the Western Mediterranean.

In the first of these Wars the Romans invaded Sicily (a region which was within the Carthaginian sphere of influence). The Romans drew first blood with a victory at Agrigentum but the war was largely a Naval engagement with Roman use of boarding bridges (hooked up between ships) deciding the conflict in their favour.

In the Second Punic War Hannibal of Carthage crossed the Alps and attacked Rome from the North with an assorted army that included an elephant contingent and inflicted defeats on Rome and her allies in the Battles of Trebia, Lake Trasimene and Cannae (Hannibal’s greatest victory). However Carthage could not build on their gains and lacked the resources (mostly military men) to consolidate their foothold.

Campaigns of the Second Punic War Source: World History Encyclopedia

The powers in Carthage refused to supply Hannibal with more troops (as did Hitler with Rommel in North Africa over two thousand years later) and the momentum flipped in favour of Rome who under the skillful leadership of the general Scipio Africanus defeated Carthage on their North African home ground at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC.

The Romans had already struck a decisive blow against Carthage in Spain at the Battle of Metaurus in 207 BC, Carthage sued for peace and were heavily punished by the Romans who were now in full control of the Western Mediterranean.

Hard-line Romans, particularly Cato the Elder (famed for his Carthage must be destroyed speeches) advocated for a war with Carthage and in the Third Punic War (the shortest of the three) Carthage was finally defeated and the city raised to the ground. A treaty negotiated in favour of Rome left the former Phoenician colony powerless.

The Growth of the Roman Republic source: Facts and Details

Roman attention was turned toward Macedonia. The two powers had already fought a war between 214-205 BC but it was in the Second War fought between 200-196 BC that Roman victory was most pronounced (The Romans would defeat the Macedonians in a third war fought between 172-168 BC as well).

Roman hegemony was challenged by the Galatians (in Magnesia), the Lusitanians (ancestors of the Portuguese), Pergamon, Rhodes, the Boii and various Iberian groups but with limited success only.

In 146 BC the Romans sacked Corinthia, dissolved the Achaean League, and officially stamped their footprint as successors to the Greeks in carrying the mantle of Western Civilization.

Source: A History of the Roman Republic Klaus Bringmann

Roman Republic | Definition, Dates, History, Government, Map, & Facts

Roman Republic, (509–27 bce), the ancient state centred on the city of Rome that began in 509 bce, when the Romans replaced their monarchy with elected magistrates, and lasted until 27 bce, when the Roman Empire was established. A brief treatment of the Roman Republic follows. For full treatment, see ancient Rome. The early Roman Republic (509–264 bce) and the preceding regal period (753–509 bce) are the most poorly documented periods of Roman history. Historical writing in Rome did not begin until the late 3rd century bce, when Rome had already completed its conquest of Italy, established itself as a

https://www.britannica.com/place/Roman-Republic

Are Israel and Judah the same?

(Asked on Quora).

No they aren’t. When King Solomon, the son of David, died he was succeeded by his son Rehoboam in 930 BCE. Unfortunately Rehoboam proved to be a terrible ruler and soon afterward the country split into two kingdoms - Israel in the North (consisting of ten tribes) and Judah in the South. The former included the cities of Schechem and Samaria. The latter contained the city of Jerusalem and was comprised of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin. It is from Judah that the word Jew originates.

Judah would continue to be governed largely by rulers from the House of David (although some have disputed this). The Kingdom of Israel existed from 930 -772 BCE and was finally destroyed by the Assyrians (leading to the mythology of the Ten Lost tribes). Judah survived until the Babylonian exile of 586 BCE that followed the destruction of the First Temple.

Map: Jewish Virtual Library

Which civilization was the equivalent of America in the ancient world?

Very interesting question. There are several levels at which this can be analyzed.

The United States today is a large, pluralistic society and a constitutional republic. It has a separation of powers, with many institutions operating along democratic lines at the local, state, and federal levels. Its value system can be understood as a fusion of Greek rationalism, Scottish Enlightenment empiricism, and Judeo-Christian ethics. Economically, the United States operates primarily through free-market systems, tempered by various public-sector institutions and government regulations.

When these attributes are considered together, they make the United States a rather unique and continuing experiment in the history of our species.

Having said that, it is still worthwhile drawing comparisons, particularly in the realms of international influence, the exercise of power, and cultural reach. With this in mind, I would argue that four ancient civilizations bear some comparison with the United States.

a. Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt dominated much of North Africa and exerted considerable influence over the politics of the Levant, particularly during various periods of the second millennium and early first millennium BC. Together with Mesopotamia, Egypt can be regarded as one of the primordial drivers of the civilizations that ultimately contributed to what we now call the Western tradition.

b. Ancient Greece

The Greek city-state model, existing within a broader Hellenic civilization, offers a loose analogy with the state-federal model that defines the United States. I agree that the analogy has significant limitations: the Greek poleis were highly decentralized and often fiercely independent, and there was nothing resembling the modern American federal government until the Hellenistic period brought much greater political consolidation under Macedonian rule.

Nevertheless, Greek civilization exercised an enormous influence across the Mediterranean and provided a major intellectual and cultural counterweight to the civilizations of the East. Its achievements in philosophy, science, political thought, art, literature, and architecture continued to resonate long after the political independence of the individual city-states had declined. In terms of intellectual accomplishment and cultural reach, there are certainly parallels with the United States.

c. Ancient Rome

The Roman Republic provides perhaps the most obvious political comparison with the United States. Its republican institutions, separation of political powers, elected magistrates, representative bodies, and tradition of civic virtue exerted a profound influence on the American Founding Fathers. This is, of course, no coincidence.

The later Roman Empire was fundamentally different from the American constitutional system, but Rome's ability to project military, political, economic, and cultural power across an enormous geographic area made it the great superpower of its age. At the height of its power, Rome was largely unrivaled militarily within the Mediterranean world and exercised enormous influence over the economic and political structures of the territories under its control.

d. The Achaemenid Persian Empire

Before the rise of Macedon and the Hellenistic world, the Achaemenid Persian Empire was the dominant power across much of the Near East and the largest empire the ancient world had yet seen. It is particularly interesting as a comparison because of its ability to govern an extraordinarily diverse population while generally allowing considerable latitude in local customs, religions, and traditions.

Persia incorporated an enormous variety of peoples and belief systems into a common imperial framework. Although this tolerance had practical political limits and should not be confused with modern liberal pluralism, the Persian approach to governing diversity provides an interesting point of comparison with the multicultural character of the modern United States.

Even after considering all four of these civilizations—and putting aside obvious distinctions such as monarchy, dynastic rule, slavery, and various forms of autocratic government—I would argue that the United States remains distinct.

Unlike these ancient powers, the American Republic has not been primarily defined by a continuous need to expand and maintain an imperial territorial system beyond its core nation-state. There have certainly been periods of American imperialism, territorial expansion, intervention, and occupation, and these should not be minimized. The United States has exercised enormous power abroad and has at times pursued policies that can reasonably be described as imperialistic.

Yet there is an important distinction in the long-term structure of American power. The United States has generally been reluctant to maintain a traditional empire based upon the permanent occupation and direct administration of foreign territories. Its historical tendency, particularly after the Second World War, has been toward the creation of alliances, spheres of influence, economic relationships, military partnerships, and international institutions rather than the formal annexation and permanent administration of large overseas territories.

This is an important distinction from the great imperial civilizations of antiquity. Egypt, Persia, Greece in its Hellenistic form, and especially Rome expanded through the conquest and incorporation of territories and peoples into political structures ultimately controlled by the imperial center.

The United States, by contrast, has exercised much of its global influence without creating a conventional territorial empire on the Roman model. Its power has rested not only upon military strength but also upon economic influence, technological innovation, cultural reach, institutional alliances, and the attraction of its political and economic model.

That does not make the United States an entirely non-imperial power. Rather, it makes the form of American power historically unusual. It is a republic that became a global superpower without fully transforming itself into a conventional empire.

That distinction, in my view, is essential when comparing the United States with the great civilizations of antiquity.

Western History 59: Why was the Silk Road important?

The Silk Road was a serious of road and transportation networks that linked China to Europe via the passageway of the Middle East. The road’s origin goes back to about 3000 BCE but its function as a conduit for both goods and knowledge exchange between the East and Europe has been pivotal to the development of the West. The Ancient Romans used the Silk Road to trade with the Han Chinese after the full road was opened to the West in 200 BCE. This allowed the Romans to gain access to the Red Sea and the important Spice Route.

Silk itself first appeared in Rome in 1 CE at about the same time that glass blowing techniques were first developed and exported from Roman Syria. The Roman’s used the route to sell goods to the East and for much of the 1^st and 2^nd century CE the stability of the road was maintained by the four Great Empires that used it – the Romans, Parthians, Kushan and Chinese.

After the 7^th century CE the road was used by the Arabs to both expand on their conquests and bring to Europe much needed technology from the East.

Gunpowder, developed by the Chinese, entered Europe via the Silk Road in the 13^th century, as did porcelain, the compass, playing cards, weaving technology and paper.

The explorer Marco Polo made contact with the court of Kublai Khan using the Silk Road in the 13^th century on the heels of the Roads renaissance that was characterized by the Pax Mongolica.

Unfortunately by 1400 CE China closed her borders to European foreigners curtailing the efficacy of the Silk Road as a trading artery although on a positive note this appears to have had the net effect of stimulating the great sea driven exploration drive that followed closely soon afterward.

Western History 54: What was the Byzantine Empire?

The Byzantium Empire or the Eastern Roman Empire had its origin in the city of Constantinople founded in 330 CE by Constantine on the Ancient Greek City of Byzantium. It grew into an important center in and around 395 CE following the split of the Roman Empire into East and West portions and unlike the West which fell in 476 CE persisted and indeed flourished until the fall of Constantinople to Arab forces in 1453.

The greatest Byzantine Emperor was Justinian who took power in 526 CE and then advanced to re-conquer parts of the Fallen Western Roman Empire – in Italy, North Africa and Spain – from the various Germanic tribes. It was Justinian who codified Roman Law into one document and built the incredible Hagia Sofia Church in Constantinople (it is a Mosque today).

However his gains were short lived. The Lombards drove the Byzantines out of Italy in 568 and from 610 onwards considerable territory in Syria, Palestine and Egypt was lost to the expanding Muslim forces. The Empire would also change its language from Latin to Greek under the 7^th century Emperor Heraclius.

Muslim attacks persisted from land and Sea but Constantinople held firm beating off the invaders in 693 and 717-718. Territory continued to be lost to the Arabs although Asia Minor was recovered in 721.

In 726 Leo III banned the use of Icons in the Empire as graven images of the divine–the use of Icons was restored in 843 following what would be later called the ‘Inconoclast Controversy’.

In the 10^th century the Byzantines struggled against a new enemy the Bulgars who overran Thrace but failed to take Constantinople. The Russians also attacked the Byzantines but suffered the loss of their fleet in 941.

However it wasn’t until the reign of Basil II that the Byzantines enjoyed a renaissance. This new Emperor would retake Syria from the Muslims in 995 and finally drive the Bulgars out of Greece in the following year earning himself the epithet in 1014 after his final destruction of the Bulgaroktonos (Bulgar slayer).

Nevertheless the Byzantines could not hang on to their gains after Basil’s death. In 1055 they lost Southern Italy to the Normans and then twenty years later surrendered Syria to the Muslims. The Turks secured a major victory against the Byzantines in 1071 at Manzikert. Thrace fell in 1087 and Asia Minor was lost in 1179.

Even Constantinople would eventually be occupied by Western knights who succeeded in conquering the city in 1204 and establishing a Latin Empire in the newly acquired territory.

Constantinople was restored to the Byzantine Empire in 1261 but its fall in 1453 at the hands of the Ottoman Turks signalled the end of an Empire that at one time represented the essence of what was Rome.

Western History 53: Which groups were involved in the Great Migration (or the Barbarian Invasion)?

From the Fourth century CE onwards both the Western and Eastern Roman Empires were subjected to vast hordes of migrants people of Eastern and Northern origin. Eventually these groups would bring down the Western Empire, drive back the Celtic and Latin populations and re-draw the political map of the west. Such groups included:

1. Visigoths – Western branch of the Gothic people. The Visigoths defeated the Romans at Adrianople (378 CE) and then under their leader Alaric sacked Rome in 410 CE. They moved into France but were driven out by the Franks in 507 CE eventually establishing a kingdom in Spain. Visigoth power in Spain was ended by the Arabs/Berbers in 711/712 CE.
2. Ostrogoths – Eastern branch of the Gothic people. The Ostrogoths traded heavily with the Romans migrating westwards under pressure from the Huns. They would eventually conquer the Italian kingdom of Odoacer establishing their own power base under Theodoric the Great. Ostrogoth power would deteriorate in the face of Byzantine advancement in Italy in the 6^th century CE with much of its population eventually being absorbed into the Lombard kingdom
3. Vandals – An Eastern Germanic people the Vandals swept westward from territory in Poland establishing kingdoms in Spain and later North Africa. They clashed with the Gothic groups but continued moving westward under Hunnic pressure.  In 429 CE they entered North Africa under the king Genseric and in 455 CE sacked Rome. However their power collapsed in 533-34 when they were defeated by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian in the Vandalic Wars. The great vandal legacy today resonates in the word ‘vandalism’ which has become synonymous with senseless destruction and the defacing of artwork (a linkage that evokes the 455 CE sacking).
4. Franks – A Germanic Group who would succeed the Romans as the eventual masters of much of France, Germany and the Lower Countries from the 5^th – 9^th century CE. The Franks would emerge as the possible successors of the Western Roman Empire through the legacy of the Merovingians and the Carolingians.
5. Saxons - Germanic tribe dominant in the low Countries, Jutland and Northern Germany. The Saxons and another tribe the Angles would eventually conquer most of England following the collapse of Roman Rule on the island in the 5^th century CE. Much of their gains would occur at the expense of the local Celtic groups.
6. Huns – A Nomadic group from the Caucus regions. It is often argued that the Huns started the great Migration by their Western drive. The greatest Hunnic warrior was Atilla who became co-ruler with his brother Bleda in 437 CE and sole ruler in 445. His forces dominated much of the interior of Eastern Europe and gained strength as they pressed into Gaul.  He plundered the Western Roman Empire and extorted the East  but was defeated in 451 by a coalition force led by the Roman General Aetius at the Battle of Catalaunian Planes. In 452 he invaded Northern Italy but a year later died of haemorrhage on his wedding Night. Hunnic dominance in Central and Eastern Europe would eventually be broken in 454 with the defeat of the Huns by a tribal grouping that included the Gepids, Heruli, Rugi, Scirii and Subebi.
7. Burgundians – A Vandal group that were one time allies of the Huns.  They are thought to have originated in Poland and eventually settled into the region of France that bears their name.
8. Lombards – Another Germanic people who would dominate the Italian peninsula from 558 to 774 CE. The Kingdom of Italy that they founded reached its peak under the rule of Liutprand in the 8^th century. 

Western History 52: What did Rome contribute to Western Civilization?

It would be a great oversight to assume that the Romans were nothing more than a military power as their contribution to Western Civilization is immense. In architecture they were known for their Domes, Frescoes and Mosaics. They were accomplished road builders and graced their domains with Aqueducts (to transport water) and viaduct bridges (that spanned valleys). Roman stadiums and Amphitheaters were the ancestors of today’s modern entertainment venues.

In addition the Romans distinguished themselves in wine making, central heating, public baths and cement/mortar pioneering.

Their language (Latin), alphabet and legal system impacted all civilizations that fell under their hegemony and they had a significant impact in such differing areas as the idea of the three-course meal, the Julian Calendar and several yearly festivals.

The following is a list of twelve Romans (other than the military figures described earlier) who helped enrich this great culture.

Table 11 Roman Cultural Figures of Note

Figure of Distinction	Significance
Agrippa Marcus Vispania (64 BCE –12 BCE)	Architect. General. Masterminded the Naval victory at Actium (31 BCE). Built many baths, porticoes and gardens. Helped transform Rome into a Marble city.
Cicero (106-43 BCE)	Orator, Lawyer, Political theorist of great distinction. Enemy of Mark Anthony. Famous for his Series of Speeches.
Horace (65-8 BCE)	Lyric poet. Lived at the time of Augustus. Known for his hexameter verses and Lambic Poetry.
Juvenal (1st century CE)	Poet and writer. Also known for his satire – Satires of Juvenal (Five Books).
Livy (c.64 BCE-17CE)	Historian. Lived at the time of the Early Julio-Claudian Emperors. Served as an advisor to Claudius. Most famous work is the History of Rome.
Ovid (43BCE –17/18 CE)	Great canonical poet. Wrote the classic Metamorphoses. Clashed with the Emperor Augustus.
Pliny the Elder (23 CE-79CE)	Author, scientist and philosopher. Wrote an encyclopaedic work (the forerunner of modern encyclopaedias) known as Naturalis Historia. Influenced his nephew Pliny the Younger.
Seneca the Younger (c. 4 BCE to 65 CE)	Stoic Philosopher. Dramatist and Statesman. Important Figure in the Silver Age of Latin Literature. Stoicism argued for the importance of virtue in the face of natures trials and tribulations.
Tacitus (c. 56 CE – 117 CE)	Historian and Senator. Detailed events from 14 to 70 CE.
Virgil (70 BCE- 19 BCE)	Poet of the Augustan Period. Most famous work is the epic poem the Aenid that was modeled after Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey.
Vitruvius (c. 80 BCE- c. 15 BCE)	Very influential architect. Wrote the multi-volume work De architecture.

Western History 51: What were the key events on the Road to the Fall of the Empire?

The Roman Empire enjoyed a resurgence in power under Constantine. However after his death in 337 CE the Empire was once again beset by internal conflict as well as attack from enemies at its peripheries. The following table highlights some of the key events that preceded the collapse of the Western Empire in 476 CE.

Table 10 Key Events leading to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire

Event	Significance
Death of Constantine (337 CE)	Division of the Empire amongst his three sons – Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans. Conflict between sons.
Reign of Julian Apostate (361-364 CE)	Julian tries to restore Paganism as the central religion of Rome. Attempt will fail.
Defeat at the Battle of Adrianople (378 CE)	Roman loss and the death of the Emperor Valens at the hands of the Goths symbolizes reflects the ascendancy of  the Germanic Tribes. Soon afterwards (402 CE) the capital city is moved to Ravenna. Will remain there until 476 CE.
Edict of Thessalonica (380 CE)	Emperor Theodosius I declares Christianity to be the State Church of the Empire. In 394 CE Theodosius will briefly re-unite the East and West Empires.
Rome is sacked by Alaric (410 CE)	Visigoth king Alaric I sacks Rome – an important event in the decline
Atilla the Hun attacks Eastern Rome (447 CE)	Atilla will ravage both the Eastern and western Empire  before being defeated at the Battle of Chalons in 451 CE by an alliance of the Romans with the Visigoths.
The Ricimer Period (457-472 CE)	The manipulative general Ricimer has de facto control over a Western Roman Empire teetering on the brink of collapse
War against the Vandals (468 CE)	Vandals join the Gothic, tribes and Huns as another group plundering a moribund Western Roman Empire.
Official Year of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 CE)	Odovacar a Germanic general ousts the politician Orestes from power and then forces the last Emperor Romulus Augustulus to abdicate. The Western Empire is no more.

Western History 50: How did the early church emerge in Rome?

Christianity would arise from humble foundations to become a dominant force in the Roman Empire. The religion itself had Jewish origins that were centred in Jerusalem and early community leaders included Peter, James and John.

Paul of Tarsus, probably more than any man, helped spread the gospels to the Gentiles and thereby established Christianity as a religion outside the Jewish context.

Christianity incorporated the Jewish Bible in its canon – via the Septuagint (Greek translation) and the Targum (Aramaic translation) – but added the Letters of Paul and the Gospels to its liturgy. Christ based theology replaced Mosaic Law although there was a strong focus on the Ten Commandments and the Golden Rule.

Baptism was added as a practice, the Divinity of  Jesus Christ was stressed and a Church hierarchy was organized. Human relations were emphasized and a complex eschatology would feature prominently.

The spread of the Church in the first four centuries of its existence largely centred around the Mediterranean area although by 600 CE it had come to dominate North Africa, Spain, Central Europe, the British Isles, Turkey going eastwards into Syria.

Edward Gibbons in his classic The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire provides an interesting overview as to the success of the Church. His key points are:

(1)  The inflexible, and, if we may use the expression, the intolerant zeal of the Christians, derived, it is true, from the Jewish religion, but purified from the narrow and unsocial spirit which, instead of inviting, had deterred the Gentiles from embracing the law of Moses;

(2)  The doctrine of a future life, improved by every additional circumstance which could give weight and efficacy to that important truth;

(3)   The miraculous powers ascribed to the primitive church;

(4)   The pure and austere morals of the Christians;

(5)   The union and discipline of the Christian republic, which gradually formed an independent and increasing state in the heart of the Roman Empire.

Western History 49: Who was Constantine and what was the Edict of Milan?

Constantine I was declared Caesar in the West in 306 CE. His father had been a co-emperor and the young Constantine had earned his spurs campaigning with his father in Britain. In 312 CE Constantine’s forces overcame those of his rival Maxentius at the Battle of Milvian Bridge. According to the historian Lactanius, Constantine had a dream the night before the battle in which God advised him to place the slanted X with the Christ figure (Chi Rho) on the shields of his soldiers.

His soon to be victorious forces did so and took the sign as a positive message from God. In 313 CE Constantine pushed through the Edict of Milan legalizing Christianity in the Empire and he himself converted soon afterward to the faith. Constantine was both an able general and a strong administrator. He not only defeated the forces of Maxentius but put down another rebellion by Maximian in 310 CE and after a series of battles consolidated all of the Roman Empire under his authority when he defeated his last rival Licinius in 324 CE.

Constantine’s reign represented a significant turning point that would ensure the growing domination of Christianity within the Empire. In 324 CE he founded the city of Constantinople (modern day Istanbul) that was dedicated in his honour six years later. Although he patronized Christianity, Constantine was astute in realizing that he could not transform the Empire overnight and still incorporated many of the pagan traditions within his realm of power. The Arch of Constantine, built in 315 CE, is replete with pagan imagery.

Western History 48: - Who were the Severan and Military Emperors?

The early decline of the Roman Empire was hinted at during the turbulent reigns of Caligula, Nero and Domitian. However the era of the Good Emperors provided a much necessary respite that would unfortunately not continue. Commodus, the son of Marcus Arurelius was a poor and malicious ruler. Septimus Severus, founder of the Severan dynasty took power in 193 CE (the Year of the Five Emperors). 

He defeated the Gauls at Lugdunum and fought successfully against the Old Enemy in the East (the Parthians) but his reign was characterized by the persecution of the Jews and Christians. An invasion of Scotland was cut short by his death in 211 CE. Soon afterwards fortunes began to decline in the Empire. Plague, Economic Depression, invasion and Civil war threatened and none of Severus’ successors – Caracalla, Geta, Macrinus, Elgabalus and Alexander Severus – proved capable of stopping the slide. 

By 235 CE the military was in effective control of the Imperial office but it administered an Empire that was fragmenting. As of 268 CE the Empire was now a composite of three parts – The Gallic Empire (Provinces of Spain, Britannia and Hispania), the Palmyrene Empire (Syria, Palestina and Egypt) and the Italian portion.

Strong leaders like Aurelian (270 –274 CE), the famed soldier Emperor temporarily reunited the portions but it was only under Diocletian that a solution for resolving the power dynamics was implemented.

Known as the Tetrachy – rule of four, the model of power sharing divided the Empire into two parts – East and West. Each part would have their own emperor and a junior emperor (the official successor) for a total of four rulers overall. The major emperors were also known as the Augusti and the methodology behind the re-design was to ensure that Emperors would succeed on merit.

Roman territory was also further sub-divided  for administration purposes into more manageable units but these changes seemed more to cover up a system in decline than actually reverse the trend. Infighting would rear its head and the Empire struggled with economic inflation that was poorly handled by wage and price fixing. At the same time Diocletian upped his persecution of the Christians and demanded that soldiers of the Christian faith take up a Roman God. This act further impacted a system in deterioration.