Western History 61: What was the Significance of Scholasticism?

Scholasticism was both a philosophy as well as a method of learning that attempted to defend Christian Church dogma with reason and logic. It was dominant in the universities of the middle ages and has its origins going back to the late 8^th century. It can be divided into a variety of sub-groupings that even had revivals as late at the 19^th century.

The two key Scholastic movements that were dominant prior to the Renaissance were Early Scholasticism (8^th-12^th century) and High Scholasticism (13^th-14^th century).

The former is often known as the Carolingian Renaissance and is contemporary with the early modern middle ages. Knowledge was spread through the mechanism of the monastic order and there was a strong revival and indeed rediscovery of the Greek theological tradition. Key figures of the early movement include Johannes Scotus, Peter Abelard, Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury and Lafranc of Canterbury.

High Scholasticism placed a greater emphasis on Mathematics and Science. There were more rigorous interpretations of Platonic and Aristotelian philosophy and strong rationalism played a key role in the typical analysis. Francis of Assisi, Bonaventure, Duns Scotus, Peter Auriol, William of Ockham (of Ockham Razor fame) and Thomas Aquinas were key thinkers to emerge from this tradition.

Aquinas was a proponent of natural theology and wrote extensively on ethics, metaphysics, natural law and political theory. His concept of the Just War as defined below and remains to this day a central feature in the philosophy underpinning the defence of the democracies:

First, war must occur for a good and just purpose rather than the pursuit of wealth or power.

Second, just war must be waged by a properly instituted authority such as the state.

Third, peace must be a central motive even in the midst of violence.

In addition Aquinas’ five proofs of God outlined below are key attributes of Western theological thought and by virtue of their implications are essential metrics in debates about the existence of a higher power.

1.    Motion: Some things undoubtedly move, though cannot cause their own motion. Since, as Thomas believed, there can be no infinite chain of causes of motion, there must be a First Mover that is not moved by anything else, and this is what everyone understands by God.

2.    Causation: As in the case of motion, nothing can cause itself, and an infinite chain of causation is impossible, so there must be First cause, called God.

3.    Existence of necessary and the unnecessary: Our experience includes things certainly existing but apparently unnecessary. Not everything can be unnecessary, for then once there was nothing and there would still be nothing. Therefore, we are compelled to suppose something that exists necessarily, having this necessity only from itself; in fact itself the cause for other things to exist.

4.    Gradation: If we can notice a gradation in things in the sense that some things are more hot, good, etc., there must be a superlative that is the truest and noblest thing, and so most fully existing. This then, we call God

5.    Ordered tendencies of nature: A direction of actions to an end is noticed in all bodies following natural laws. Anything without awareness tends to a goal under the guidance of one who is aware. This we call God

Western History 60: How did Feudalism emerge?

Feudalism (word comes from the Latin feudum or fief) was the dominant political and social philosophy of Western Europe between the 9^th and 15^th centuries. Feudalistic societies were structured along the lines of land and labour. While some historians have debated whether it is a useful to understand the Middle Ages there is no doubt that Medieval societies developed around a framework that was intrinsically feudalistic and hierarchical.

Feudal societies emerged in Western Europe after the decentralization of the vast Carolingian Empire set up by Charlemagne. Classic Feudalistic societies revolved around three key elements – lords, vassals and fiefs.

The lord or noble held the land, the vassal was granted land on behalf of the lord in exchange for services provided to the lord and the fief was the land under consideration. Vassals swore an oath of fealty and homage to the lords and could be used by the lords for both military and non-military service (largely involving agricultural labour and produce). In exchange the lord offered to protect the vassal. The economic structure is often term Manorialism (after the manor – the home of the lord).

There was no single type of feudalism that served as the model for European society but almost all systems gave the lord tremendous power with respect to sentencing for criminal offences, the initiation of capital punishment and rigid control of agricultural policy.

By the year 1500 Feudalism had effectively disappeared in much of Western Europe although it maintained a strong grip in Eastern Europe and Russia. With the latter only abolishing serfdom – bonding of a peasant to the lord’s land – in the 1850s.

Free Market Trade and the movement away from an Agrarian based economy would serve to weaken the grip of feudalism in the West towards the end of the High Middle Ages

Western History 59: Why was the Silk Road important?

The Silk Road was a serious of road and transportation networks that linked China to Europe via the passageway of the Middle East. The road’s origin goes back to about 3000 BCE but its function as a conduit for both goods and knowledge exchange between the East and Europe has been pivotal to the development of the West. The Ancient Romans used the Silk Road to trade with the Han Chinese after the full road was opened to the West in 200 BCE. This allowed the Romans to gain access to the Red Sea and the important Spice Route.

Silk itself first appeared in Rome in 1 CE at about the same time that glass blowing techniques were first developed and exported from Roman Syria. The Roman’s used the route to sell goods to the East and for much of the 1^st and 2^nd century CE the stability of the road was maintained by the four Great Empires that used it – the Romans, Parthians, Kushan and Chinese.

After the 7^th century CE the road was used by the Arabs to both expand on their conquests and bring to Europe much needed technology from the East.

Gunpowder, developed by the Chinese, entered Europe via the Silk Road in the 13^th century, as did porcelain, the compass, playing cards, weaving technology and paper.

The explorer Marco Polo made contact with the court of Kublai Khan using the Silk Road in the 13^th century on the heels of the Roads renaissance that was characterized by the Pax Mongolica.

Unfortunately by 1400 CE China closed her borders to European foreigners curtailing the efficacy of the Silk Road as a trading artery although on a positive note this appears to have had the net effect of stimulating the great sea driven exploration drive that followed closely soon afterward.

The US and Canada After a North America Wide Future Civil War.

I predicted that the US and Canada would divide along these lines following a Civil War in the 21^st century.

The Eastern Union (EU): A commercially centered economic union comprised of the former New England States (Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Vermont) and the regions, states and provinces of New York, New Jersey, Rhode Island, Delaware, Eastern Pennsylvania, Maryland, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland. Capital city: Washington DC.

The American Republic (AR): This nation’s economy depended largely on its industrial production and mining. It was comprised of the former states and provinces of Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Ohio, Kentucky, Ontario, Manitoba, West Virginia and Wisconsin, plus the territory of western Pennsylvania. Capital city: Cincinnati.

The Free States of Southern America (FSSA): A Union incorporating the states of Virginia, Tennessee, the Carolinas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama and Georgia. Capital city: Atlanta.

The Florida Republic (FR): The FR was comprised only of the former state of Florida, whose vast Hispanic population voted overwhelmingly for the right to exist as an independent state. Capital City: Miami.

The Midwestern Federation (MF): Also called the “High-Tech” Federation, the MF inherited the states of Missouri, the Dakotas, Idaho, Kansas, Nebraska, Minnesota, Montana, Wyoming and the former Canadian province of Manitoba. Capital city: Omaha.

The Texas Expansion (TE): This industrial-agricultural nation was made up of the former states of Arizona, Colorado, Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Utah, Nevada and New Mexico. Capital city: Amarillo.

The California Republic (CR): A service and industrial production based economy the CR was comprised only of the former state of California. A new capital was built for the republic at Reagan City Complex, Death Valley.

The Cascade Federation (CF): A resource-based republic formed from the states of Alaska, Arizona, Oregon and Washington as well as the former Canadian provinces of Alberta, British Columbia, Saskatchewan and the Yukon Territory. Capital city: Vancouver.

Pacific Conglomerate (PC): A trading nation made up largely of the state of Hawaii and the islands of Midway and Guam. Capital city: Honolulu.

Western History 58: How did Islam and the Arab civilization expand?

From its origins in the Arabian Peninsula the Monotheistic religion Islam would sweep through the Middle East, North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, Central Asia and Asia Minor to establish itself as the great rival to the power Christendom Europe and the Near East.  The religion was founded by Muhammad an Arab merchant in Mecca who is believed by his followers to be the final prophet and the recipient of the Holy revelation of Allah (God). The revelation was later documented in the Koran (Muslim Holy Book). Key events in the expansion of Islam as both a religion and a political ideology are listed below.

20 Milestones in the Islamic and Arab Expansion (in order of date)

1. 610 CE – Muhammad has his religious experience on Mount Hira that forever changes his life. He will start building a following from this time onward.
2. 615 CE – Muslims are persecuted by Quaraish in Mecca.
3. 622 CE – Year of the Hijra – Mohammad flees with followers to Yathrib (Medina). Start of the Muslim Calendar,
4. 624 CE – Muhammad returns to Mecca. Wins important Battle of Abdr.
5. 627 CE – Starts persecuting Jews of Banu Quaiza executing their men whom he suspects of aiding his allies. In the Same year he establishes an Alliance with other Medina Merchants.
6. 630 CE – Muhammad finally takes Mecca and makes it the spiritual focal point of Islam.
7. 632 CE – Death of Muhammad. His father-in-law Abu-Bakr and Umar, his successor, move to establish authority of the Caliph (Deputey of the Prophet). Caliph established throughout Arab controlled lands.
8. 633-634 CE – Muslim take Syria and Iraq. Victory over the Byzantines follow.
9. 634-644 CE – Umar expands Muslim control over Egypt, the Levant and  Persia. Great Muslim victory at the Battle of Yarmuk (636 CE) ensures domination of Syria.
10. 637 CE – Fall of Jerusalem to Muslim forces
11. 641 CE – Muslim forces move into the Caucaus regions – Azerbaijan, Georgia, Armenia. In the same year Alexandria falls to the Muslim invaders.
12. 644 CE – Death of Umar. Succession of Uthman. Sunni/Shi’ite split. Shi’ites rally behind Muhammad’s son-in-law Ali. Sunni follow the leadership of Uthman.
13. 649-655 CE – Attacks on Sicily and Cyprus. Muslim victory at the Battle of the Masts. Byzantines continue to lose territory in North Africa.
14. 661-680 CE – Umayyad Dynasty in the ascendancy although they will be opposed by the Abbasids. Muslims capture Rhodes but fail to take Constantinople in two sieges (668 CE and 672-679 CE). Arab conquest reaches the Indus river.
15. 711 CE – Muslims invade Spain. Overthrow the Visigoth kingdoms and establish control of the Iberian Peninsula in 718 CE.
16. 717-718 CE – Muslims fail again to take Constantinople after a brutal siege. Byzantine Emperor Leo III played a key role in this defence.
17. 732 CE – Charles Martel stops the Invasion of the Muslim forces at the Battle of Poitiers. By 739 CE much of the French territory under Muslim control will have been retaken by Christian forces.
18. 750 CE – Composition of the famous Arabian Nights tales.
19. 756 CE – Umayyad Regime under Abd-al Rahman dominates in Spain although power in the rest of the Sunni Muslim world now favours the Abbasids.
20. 800 CE – Caliph Harun al-Rashid (died 809 CE) gives keys to the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem to the Franks thus reinforcing somewhat of a Lain presence in the Holy City.

Western History 57: Who was Charlemagne?

Charlemagne (also known as Charles the Great) was the greatest of the Early Middle Ages sovereigns. He was the grandson of Charles Martel (whose forces defeated the Muslim Invaders in Tours in 732 CE) and the son of Pepin the Short. Charlemagne lived between 742 (?) and 814 reigning as Holy Roman Emperor from 800-814.

He expanded the Frankish State under the vanguard of the Carolingian Empire so that at its height it comprised the modern day territories of  France, Northern and Central Italy, the Low Countries, Most of Germany, Austria, Hungary  and Switzerland. His domain included the cities of Paris, Toulouse, Aachen and Rome and represented the largest contiguous region controlled by a single monarch since the Age of the Western Roman Empire.

Charlemagne was both an astute military commander and a tremendous champion of European culture – art, writing and biblical scholarship.

In 771 Charlemagne became sole ruler of the Frankish kingdom following the death of his brother Carloman. Three years later he answered a plea from the Pope to come to the latter’s aid against the Lombards and did so successfully. In 775 he attacked the Saxons and in 778 waged war in Spain (an episode immortalized in the famed Song of Roland literature).  By 783 Charlemagne had finally crushed the Saxons and followed on this success by defeating the Bavarians in 788 and the Avars (791-796) adding their territory in Hungary and Austria to his realm.

The papacy came under pressure in 799 resulting in a brutal attack on the pope Leo III. Charlemagne backed up the Pope against charges of mass conspiracy and for his support was crowned Holy Roman Emperor on Christmas Day in 800. This represented the only time in history when the Pope bowed before an earthly ruler.

Charlemagne died in 814 and was succeeded by his son Louis the Pious. Louis would rule until 840 eventually dividing the large kingdom among his three sons Lothair I, Louis II and Charles the Bald. What emerged from this division were the archetypes of the countries of Italy, France and Germany.

Western History 56: How did Christianity spread in Western Europe?

The Early Middle Ages (476-799 CE) were characterized by a rapid spread of Christianity. Conversions of other population groups in the North and East would follow (eg.  Scandinavia by 1000 CE) but by 800 CE Western Europe was largely a Christian entity with the Latin church based in Rome. The following outlines how Christianity spread beyond its Southern European core to the rest of the continent.

Table 12 The Spread of Christianity in Western Europe

Region/Population Group	Agent of Initial Conversion
Ireland	Christianity spread to Ireland from Roman Britain in the 5th century. St. Patrick a Romano-Britain missionary and future patron saint of Ireland is believed to have played a key role. The introduction of private penance is thought to have been an Irish innovation.
Scotland	Irish missionaries Columba and Columbans are credited with bringing Christianity to Scotland.
Anglo-Saxon England	Converted by the mission of St. Augustine and Gregory the Great.
Franks of Gaul	Adopted Christianity after the conversion of the Merovingian king Clovis I.
Frisians and Low Countries	Conversion driven by the Northumbrian Monk Willibrod who was commissioned by Pope Segius I.
German Franks	Conversion was driven by an Anglo-Saxon mission led by Saint Boniface.

Western History 55: Who were the Merovingians?

The Merovingians are the oldest French dynasty having emerged from Salian Frank origins in the Mid 5^th Century. The dynasty’s founder was Childeric I but its greatest king was Clovis I (481-511). Clovis defeated the Roman ruler Syagrius in 486 and the Alemanni in 496 uniting most of Northern Gaul above the Loire under his control. He would later go on to defeat the Visigoths but he is most remembered for spreading Christianity in his Kingdom after he adopted the Christian Nicene faith of his wife Clotilda.

Merovingian kings were known for their distinctive long hair (that contrasted with the short hair of the Franks) and there is much legend that surrounds their feats that is associated with both miracles and a type of hagiography. However by the 8^th century their power was largely ceremonial with real force residing with the Mayors of the Palace (household managers). In 751 CE one of these Mayors, Pepin the Short, deposed the last Merovingian king to establish the Carolingian dynasty.