Multiverses

On the Multiverse. There are a variety of multiverse models but the most common one is that developed by Hugh Everett III to explain the phenomenon of Wave-Particle Duality. It is also known as the Many Worlds Interpretation (MWI). According to Everett all possible alternate histories and futures are real so that the various outcomes are realized over the sum of the many worlds. We live in a world which displays one of those outcomes. Like the other three explanations for Wave-Particle Duality (Collapse, Pilot and Copenhagen) the mathematics checks out. 
Multiverse modelling occurs in other areas of Physics. Max Tegmark, arguably one of the most brilliant physicists alive today, posits a classification system that consists of four levels that can be used to describe Multiverses.

Level One – Multiverses produced by cosmic inflation that have same physical constants and laws as does our universe;
Level Two – Multiverses produced by Chaotic inflation that have different constants and laws and are produced by a bubble effect (Andre Linde calculated that there are 10^10^10,000,000 of these);
Level Three – MWI Interpretation described above
Level Four – Constructs within Tegmark’s own mathematical universe hypothesis (a Theory of Everything that sees physical reality as a mathematical structure).

Brian Greene has a different classification system that has nine types and looks at simulations, holographs, cyclic phenomena, Branes etc.

The Difference between a Religion and a Cult

Its still not easy to draw the fine line between some religious denominations and cults other than numbers, historical acceptance and longevity. However there seems as though there should be more than this - How about an obsession with converts, the intimidation of those who have left the cult/religion and the irrationality of the worldview? While all three adjuncts need not be met it does appear that if all the boxes are easily ticked off one ought to be concerned.

The Differences between Neoconservatism and Neoliberalism

Neoliberalism is  an economic philosophy driven by laissez-faire economics, deregulation, free trade and a reduction in government spending.

Neoconservativism often include neoliberal principles in its worldview but is more focused on an foreign relations, promotion of democratic ideals and necessary action to spread such ideals. Some of the basic ideas of Neoconservatism are outlined in this list of statement from the Henry Jackson society.

The Society Believes that modern liberal democracies set an example to which the rest of the world should aspire.

1. Supports a ‘forward strategy’ – involving diplomatic, economic, cultural, and/or political means—to assist those countries that are not yet liberal and democratic to become so.
2. Supports the maintenance of a strong military, by the United States, the countries of the European Union and other democratic powers, armed with expeditionary capabilities with a global reach, that can protect our homelands from strategic threats, forestall terrorist attacks, and prevent genocide or massive ethnic cleansing.
3. Supports the necessary furtherance of European military modernization and integration under British leadership, preferably within NATO
4. Stresses the importance of unity between the world’s great democracies, represented by institutions such as NATO, the European Union and the OECD, among many others.
5. Believes that only modern liberal democratic states are truly legitimate, and that the political or human rights pronouncements of any international or regional organisation which admits undemocratic states lack the legitimacy to which they would be entitled if all their members were democracies.
6. Gives two cheers for capitalism. There are limits to the market, which needs to serve the Democratic Community and should be reconciled to the environment.
7. Accepts that we have to set priorities and that sometimes we have to compromise, but insists that we should never lose sight of our fundamental values. This means that alliances with repressive regimes can only be temporary. It also means a strong commitment to individual and civil liberties in democratic states, even and especially when we are under attack.

World History 71: Which Universities were founded in the Middle Ages?

Several of Europe’s top universities have their origins as institutions of higher learning in the Middle Ages. They were largely focused on theology and Medicine and catered to a student core from a wide area. Many universities were independent of local civil authorities and while some were associated with the church this was not always the case. University charters were often granted by the Pope or the Holy Roman Emperor. The teachers were known as Masters

The ten oldest universities in Europe and the year/s that they were founded are outlined below. Foundation years can precede charters by well over a century.

1. Bologna (1000 – charter 1158)
2. Paris (1045 – charter 1200)
3. Oxford (1096 – charter 1248)
4. Vicenza (1204)
5. Cambridge (1209)
6. Palencia (1212)
7. Salamanca (1218)
8. Padua (1222)
9. Naples (1224)
10. Toulouse (1229)

Western History 70: What was the Black Death?

The Black Death (or Bubonic plague) was a pandemic that swept over Europe and Asia between the years 1346 and 1353 killing over 75 million people (possibly as much as 200 million). Its exact origin is still unknown but it was brought over to Europe by Oriental rat fleas associated with Black rats. These are believed to have entered the continent from Asia on merchant ships.
 The pandemic was also known as the Great Mortality and it initially spread across the Eurasian landmass as a result of the Silk Road. Its impact on European cities was severe – Paris lost half of its population, while the death toll in Hamburg and Bremen was as high as 60%. London also witnessed a death rate that exceeded 50% of the population. While certain areas of Europe were missed the death rates from the Plague caused immense labour shortages and resulted in the persecution of several minority groups. Jews were falsely accused of setting off the plague and there was a persecution of Jewish communities in Strasbourg, Mainz and Cologne and 150 others. The Romani also suffered accordingly as did certain Leper colonies.

While the plague burnt itself out by 1453 it recurred with a ferocity over fifteen times in Europe between 1346 and 1671 and nine times in England. The Great Plague of 1665 that preceded the Fire of London is believed to be a Bubonic Plague.

Later bouts were seen in China (1855-1869) and San Francisco (1900-1904) and despite modern treatments with insecticides and antibiotics the plague continues to resurface at select sites (such as Madagascar in 1995).

The Bubonic Plague is also thought to have been the disease that inflicted the Eastern Roman Byzantine Empire between 541-542 where it was known as the Plague of Justinian.

21 Realizations about Atheism and Atheists

These are based on my personal interactions with Atheists in the day-to-day and on various forums over the last ten years or so. Others may have had different experiences. Many of these points can apply to Deists as well. For the sake of simplicity I will not delve into the nature of Buddhism and Taoism as philosophies that are god independent.

1.       There is considerable variation among atheists in issues that are not God focused.

2.       Most atheists see God through the lens of the theistic society from which they have emerged. Although it sounds ridiculous there are clear distinctions between Jewish, Christian and Muslim Atheists.

3.       From personal observation Christian atheists focus on the divinity of Christ, Jewish atheists struggle with the notion of God and the Holocaust and Muslim atheists take issue with the excesses in the Quran.

4.       For most atheists opposition to the notion of God is generally directed at a theistic God. Many atheists are not even aware of the deistic God.

5.        A smaller sub-section of atheists are opposed to the entire notion of God itself. They see the concept as meaningless.

6.       Not all atheists take a militant position against theism. It is my experience that those who do often (but not always) come from a religious fundamentalist background.

7.       While the majority of atheists seem to have a positive attitude towards science this is not always the case. I have come across many atheists who have substituted a lack of belief in a God with some New Age Belief System.

8.       Most atheists tend to be left or center left with respect to the American political dynamic but there are a considerable amount of Right Leaning Libertarians who are atheists as well. I suspect opposition to existing institutions and norms may frame some of these positions.

9.       Many atheists (especially the philosophical types) seem to be intelligent but again this is not always the case. Some appear to be well read but this is after masked by selective mining of the relevant literature (theists can be just as guilty).

10.   Conservative Atheists do exist. Many take solace in Burke’s notion of the transcendent which they often see in the form of the Great Institutions of Western Civilization.

11.   Just like theists/deists there are good and bad people among atheists.

12.   Many philosophical atheists use a secular version of the Golden Rule to guide their moral decisions. Others have adopted philosophical positions from Kant, Mill, Rawls and Nozick.

13.   Many people have been driven towards atheism by the actions of Theistic Extremists eg. 911, and other types of religious inspired violence etc.

14.   Atheists tend to replace a belief in God with a belief in another type of transcendent. For those on the left it is usually humanism and/or a version of a political belief system that is largely collectivist. Libertarian atheists often opt for the Individual and the notion of liberty.

15.   Individuals growing up in countries with a strong atheist population (Sweden, Norway, Estonia etc) have more of a complacency about their atheism than those living in countries with a stronger theistic base such as the US or the nations of the Middle east.

16.   Many atheistic arguments derive from the writings of David Hume and Bertrand Russell. Richard Dawkins in particular relies heavily on Russell.

17.   When push comes to shove most Atheists are Agnostic as opposed to Gnostic with respect to their position on God. They do however vary with degree.

18.   It is a waste of time debating with hardcore atheists. Scientific debates always come down to the nature of evidence and the notion of material reductionism. There is virtually no impasse beyond this.

19.   When faced with a weak theist opponent Atheist debaters will often resort to mockery. Many theists set themselves up for this.

20.   Atheists belonging to the Anti-Theist sub-grouping all too often use a literal reading of the Theistic Texts in an argument. Against weaker theistic opponents this is effective but when up against tougher opposition (check out Harris v Prager) it can backfire.

21.   Some atheists actually see religion as necessary for the masses but not for themselves per se. Not every atheist believes in throwing the shared religious heritage out the door.

Recommended Physics Books

As a Physics teacher and admirer of the Queen of Sciences I recommend the following books.

1. The Elegant Universe – Brian Greene - excellent introduction into the fundamentals of Modern Physics. 
2. Hyperspace – Michio Kaku - wonderful take on extra-dimensions by a strong narrator.
3. The Ideas of Physics – Ernest Hutten - an oldie but a goldie – discusses key ideas that shaped the discipline. 
4. Fearful Symmetry – A. Zee - Looks at the Beauty in Physics.
5. Physics of Immortality – Frank Tipler - a bit over the top but highly entertaining nevertheless.
6. Theories of Everything – John Barrow - Low key but well written.
7. Feynman Lecture Series – Richard Feynman - A struggle for the lay person but if you can get through a third of it your effort will be rewarded.
8. The Trouble with Physics – Lee Smolin - an important critique of the group think that has encroached on the discipline. 
9. Physics – Douglas Giancoli - Doesn’t matter what the edition is its treatment of classical physics is praiseworthy. 
10. The Flying circus of Physics – Jearl Walker – Challenging problems that force one to really think deep.
11. Relativity Simply Explained – Martin Gardiner – Its title says it all.
12. The First Three Minutes – Steven Weinberg- Still one of the best treatments of the Big Bang.
13. The Constants of Nature – John Barrow – Delves into the details of these definitive constants that so encapsulate our universe.
14. Thirty Years that Shook Physics: The Story of Quantum Theory – Gamow is a great storyteller and he didn’t disappoint with this useful read.
15. 50 Physics Ideas – Joanne Baker – Lots of fun and really easy to re

Critical Thinking Maxims

My personal list

1. Be skeptical of everything you read. Always ask yourself the question – Why do I believe this to be true?
2. Consider the source for any data that you use. What assumptions underpin the data collection models? What are the motivations of the group gathering the data in the first place?
3. Correlation does not necessarily imply causation
4. An expert in one field does not make said person an expert in another.
5. Make a concerted effort to distinguish between fact and opinion.
6. Truth is not decided via a popularity vote.
7. An appeal to authority is all too often used as a smokescreen to hide individual shortfalls in understanding.
8. Science is unfortunately not independent of the politics that drives it.
9. Be wary of the Strawman Argument and the use of the Ad Hominem attack.
10. Define your terms before engaging in a debate with another.
11. Most trend relationships in the social sciences are best analyzed using a multi-variable approach
12. Use caution when inferring from the special to the general.
13. Any scientific model is only as good as the validity of the assumptions upon which it is based.
14. Science operates under the drivers of rationalism and empiricism. Problems occur when one of these attributes are missing.
15. Dosage is the key to understanding whether a substance is a toxic. Without dosage information toxicity statements are misleading.
16. There is no such thing as Free Energy.
17. Fact checking organizations should not be taken as gospel.
18. The vast majority of conspiracy related tropes are pure nonsense. Most can be taken apart by a simple application of Ockham’s Razor.
19. Policy that makes one feel good may not be the best plan of action for a specific situation.
20. When analyzing a graph to predict a future trend the errors associated with extrapolation can be extremely large especially if the relationship is non-linear.
21. People are more likely to believe what fits into their established worldview (Confirmation Bias).
22. Read material that forces you to be uncomfortable with your established position.
23. Science is ultimately about the evidence. Any accepted notion is only one fully verified experiment away from being toppled.
24. A gap in knowledge does not imply the presence of a deity in action.
25. Defining a construct and gaining popular support for such a construct does not make a construct valid in and of itself.
26. Not all ideas are equally worthy. Some are a lot better than others.
27. Repeating something over and over again does not make it true.
28. Good people can advocate bad ideas.
29. Science works as in the long run it tends to self-correct. Poor ideas however can persist in the short run based on an appeal to authority.
30. History can repeat itself but it need not.
31. There is no innate direction for both evolution and history.
32. Do not ignore the great thinkers of the past. They may be deceased but their ideas transcend their living essence.
33. Data can always be manicured to make it say what you want it to say.
34. Complexities arising at various levels can hide the factors that exist when analyzing the reduced system.
35. Left and Right political positions are only meaningful if we know and can define the center.

Western History 69: What was the Hundred Years War?

The Hundred Year's War is a term used to describe the conflict between the English House of Plantagenet and the French House of Valois to control of France. The war lasted between 1337 and 1453 and can be roughly divided into three phases - Edwardian War (1337-1360), the Caroline War (1363-c. 1380) and the Lancastrian War (c. 1410-1453).

Key Events of the War

1337 - the relationship between the two houses worsen when Philippe VI of France declares that the Duchy of Guyenne is forfeited to him by Edward III of England as the latter is accused of harbouring Robert D'Artois (an opponent of the French regime). Edward replies with a letter of Defiance.

1340 - English invade France. Defeat French fleet at Sluys.

1345-1347- English win the Battle of Crécy and capture Calais.

1350 - Death of Philippe. He is succeeded by Jean II.

1355-1357 - English campaigns in Southern France, Victory at the Battle of Poitiers. Jean II captured.

1359-1360 - Edward III launches Great Campaign in France but fails to take Paris. French king released from captivity in 1360.

1360 - Treaty of Bretigny ends First Phase of the War.

1362 - English soldiers ravage French countryside. Aquitaine established as a principality to be ruled by Edward III's son the 'Black Prince' Edward of Woodstock.

1364 - Civil War in France.  Charles V fights Charles of Navarre. The former will truimph at the Battle of Chocerel.

1369-1373 - Fighting between English and French breaks out again. French win a key battle at Pontvallain. French win back some towns in Guyenne lost to English using tactics of ambushes and night raids.

1377 - Death of Edward III.  Succeeded by Richard II. French raid English coast,.French victory at Eymet.

1378 -1417 - Great Schism dominates Western Church Politics.

1399 - Richard II overthrown by Henry Bolingbroke the son of John of Gaunt.

1402- French aid Scots in invading England.

1405 - French assist Owen Glendower's Welsh rebellion against England.

1407 - France in a state of Civil War. House of Burgundy vs House of Orleans. Both seek English aid.

1415 - Henry V succeeds his father Henry IV. Invades France and defeats the French at the Battle of Agincourt.

1416 - 1420 - Henry V captures Normandy. Forms alliance with Burgundians. Defeats French-Scottish troops at Fresnay

1420 Henry V  forces the French King Charles  VI to make him king upon the death of the French Monarch.

1422 - Death of Henry V prematurely. English under John Duke of Bedord (Henry's brother and regent to Henry's ten month old son Henry VI) wages war in the interests of his nephew.

1422-1426 -  English win battles at Cravant, Verneuil and Avranches.

1427 - French victory at Montargis.

1428- 1429 Siege of Orleans. The Siege will be broken by the forces of  Jeanne d'Arc and the constable de Richemont. Charles VII crowned king of France.

1430 - Jeanne d'Arc captured by the English and burnt at the stake.

1435 - Treaty of Arras establishes peace between Charles VII and the House of Burgundy.

1436 -1441- French recover Paris, Creil and Contlans. 

1444 - Hostilities with England suspended as a result of the Truce of Tours.

1449 - Fighting erupts between France and England. Charles V will retake Normandy by 1450.

1453 - French canon and handgun fire secures a victory at the Battle of Castillon. End of the War. All English possessions in France lost except for Calais.

Why History? Victor Davis Hanson

Excellent words by Victor Davis Hanson.

Western History 68: What were the Crusades?

The Crusades were a series of religious wars largely directed by the Roman Catholic Church against orthodoxies or movements that challenged that challenged Church hegemony.  Motivations for specific Crusades are mixed and extend beyond the conventional wisdom that they were directed solely against the spread of Islam. The following timeline illustrates some of the key events in Crusader history which was very much a feature of the European political landscape from the 11th to the 15th century.

Crusader Timeline

753 - Crusade ordered by Pope Stephen II against the Lombards.

1054 - East-West Christian Schism

1071 - Expansion of Seljuk Turk Empire after victory at Battle of Manzikert (against Byzantines).

1072 - Holy Land seized from Fatimids by Seljuk Turks.

1073 - Pope Gregory introduces concept of 'right order in the world'. Supports the idea of Christian princes recovering land from the Muslims in Spain. Church authority grows emboldened by the Investiture Controversy. Extension of the concept of the Just War.

1095 - Council of Cleremont called in response to the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Kmnenos calling for aid to fight the Seljuk Turks. Pope Urban II orders a Crusade to win back the lost territory and potentially re-unite both sides of the Christian church.

1096 - People's crusade led by Peter the Hermit. Ends in failure. Pogroms against the Jews carried out by Peasant groups in the Rhineland.

1095-1099 - First Crusade led by French Knights (consisting of Four Armies). Siege of Antioch key turning point. Principle players include: Godfrey of Bouillon, Baldwin of Boulogne, Raymond IV of Toulouse, Stephen of Blois, Robert Curthose of Normandy,Hugh of Vermandois, Bohemond of Taranto. 

1099 - Fall of Jerusalem to Crusader forces. 20,000 people massacred. Captured regions divided into four principalities. Godfrey of Bouillon becomes ruler of Jerusalem.

1113 - 1129 Founding of two Crusading Military orders - Knight's Templars and Knight's Hospitallers. Combine knighthood with monasticism. Main focus to protect pilgrams on the road to the Holy Land.

1147-1148 - Failed Second Crusade falls short of capturing Edessa. Crusade was led by King Louis VII of France and King Conrad of Germany. Edessa had fallen to Muslim forces in 1144.

1147 - Crusade against Wendish Pagans.

1157-1158 - Crusades launched against Muslims in Spain.

1169 - Saladin rules Egypt as a vassal of Turkish ruler Nur-al -Din.

1187 - Saladin defeats the King of Jerusalem Guy of Lusignan at the Battle of Hattin. Cature of True Cross. Tyre and Jerusalem fall to Saladin. Call for Third Crusade. Answered by the German Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, French King Philip Augustus and English King Richard the Lionheart.

​1189-1192 - Third Crusade. Frederick drowns in Cilicia. Philip returns after Acre is captured in 1191 and Richard campaigns until 1192. Richard had financed his crusade by extorting money from the Jews (Massacre of Jews occurred at York in 1190). Richard takes coast cities from Acre to Jaffa. His troops massacred 2,700 Muslim captives prior to his march to Jaffa. Richard will return home to deal with a domestic rebellion before taking Jerusalem. Although he did negotiate a three year deal with Saladin that would allow Christian's access to the Holy City while it remained under Muslim control. On his way home Richard was captured and held captive by Leopald V, Duke of Austria. He was released in 1194 after a ransom of 100,000 pounds of silver was paid.

1193 - Teutonic Order of Knights wages Crusade against Baltic Pagans.

1203 -1204 - Fourth Crusade called by Innocent III. Venetians pay for Crusade and ships are instead diverted to Constaninople. The Byzantine city is sacked and a Latin Kingdom is established in its place. The Byzantines will soon gain re-control over the city.

1209-1229 - Albigensian Crusade against Cathar heretics. in Southern France.

1212 - Crusade against Almohads in Spain.

1212 - Two Children's Crusades. Both end in failure

1218-1221 - Fifth Crusade. Trapped in Egypt. Ends in failure.

1228-1229 - Sixth Crusade. Not an official Crusade against Islam as its leader Emperor Frederick II had been excommunicated by the Pope for ignoring the Papal demand for an earlier Crusade. Crusade does however capture Jerusalem which is held by Christian forces until 1244.

1244 - Muslims recapture Jerusalem.

1248-1254 - Seventh Crusade. Well funded Crusade of  French king Louis IX is captured in Egypt. Fails to take Jerusalem and is returned home after ransom is paid.

1269-1270 - Eighth Crusade. Second Crusade of Louis IX ends when he dies of dysentery in Tunis.

1271 - Future English king Edward I leads in the East.

1291 - Last Crusader Kingdom in Levant located at Acre falls to the Muslim Mamluk forces.\

1306 - Knight's Hospitallers win control of Rhodes.

1307-1312 - Suppression of the Knight's Templars by King Philip V.

1314-1348 - Various Crusades (largely politically motivated) against groups opposed to Papacy in Hungary, Italy, Poland, Bohemia, Germany and Finland.

Map of the Crusades

Western History 67: What were some of the noteworthy Monastic Orders?

By the 11^th century the Roman Catholic Church had virtually a monopolistic hold of all Christian belief in Western Europe. The Eastern Orthodox Churches enjoyed sway in the East since the East-West Schism of 1054. Monastic orders dedicated to a cloistered ascetic life had been a dominant feature of the Christian landscape since the founding of Christian monasticism by Saint Anthony the Great. Monastic traditions were not unique to Christianity (indeed one could argue that the Essenes associated with Judaism were Monastic in spirit) and existed in the Celtic world going back to the Roman Empire.

Irish Christianity is very much associated with a Monastic core as is the Christianity of Wales, Scotland and Cornwall.

However it is the great Monastic orders of the continent that were particularly influential in not only spearheading the Missionary drive but acting as repositories for medical development, text writing, musical innovation (eg. Gregorian chants) and the refinement of Alcohol (oh..those Trappist Monks).

Some key orders that developed were:

• Benedictine – Founded in 529 at Monte Cassino. Known for their self-sufficiency.
• Carthusians – Order open to both sexes. Founded by St. Bruno of Cologne.
• Cistercians – Order of St. Bernard. Set up by Robert Molesme in 1098.
• Clunicians – Very influential order during the Crusader time period.
• Hieronymites – Order of Saint Jerome. Founded in Spain in the 14th century. Favoured Hermitic based life.

Western History 66: What were some examples of Gothic Architecture?

If ever you wish to reflect on the Brilliance of Western Civilization look no further than the great cathedrals that define Gothic Architecture. Majestic, tall and inspiring these incredible buildings revolutionized our collective heritage with a unique fusion of science, design, artistic flair and constructive brilliance. Gothic Architecture continued the tradition of representing a celestial paradise on Earth.

Gothic Architecture (a term coined during the Renaissance) emerged in and around 1140 and included such features as the pointed arch, ribbed vaults and the flying buttress. While most Gothic Architecture is often associated with Cathedrals and Abbeys there were many castles, palaces and town halls that were built in the Gothic style.

An early forerunner of Gothic Architecture was Romanesque with excellent examples seen in the Maria Laach Abbey, Turn Collegiate Church and Lessay Abbey.

Variations in Gothic style are shown in the pictures of the following buildings: Amiens, Canterbury, Chartres, Cologne, Lincoln, Reims, Saint-Chapelle, Sante Croce, Toledo Tours and Ulm.

Source: Westminster Cathedral

Life Form Types in a Speculative Universe

From my Book - History of the Future

(I used Hebrew Letters to name various regions of the galaxy).

Alumitoids: Aluminum-based organisms that are rigid in shape and have robotic features. Alumitoid bodies also have a high cellular magnesium and copper content. They are found mainly in the Dalet Region.

Casgains: Slime-like organisms composed of high fat and cholesterol superstructures, they originated in the Forbasch and Plamtoes zones of the Galaxy’s Hey region.

Diamanoids: A very dense carbon-based crystalline life form. Most diamanoids can metamorphose into graphite if necessary.

Fiticites: These iridium-based life forms often have pointed or jagged shapes.

Glymoids: These creatures have a crystalline structure that can take on a tetrahedral or icosahedrons form.

Hosgramins: Hydrogen-helium organisms, their sub-atomic interactions lead to alpha decay that provides energy for their metabolism.

Javolites: Sulfur-based organisms that use iodine and astatine to form cellular networks.

Mesomorphoids: These “super elastic organisms” are composed chiefly of bringbew, an inorganic, stretchable compound.

Nugoids: Organisms composed of a radioactive matrix, Nugoids are rich in elements from the lanthanide and actinide series of the periodic table.

Oragamin: Life forms based on a germanium version of DNA known as oragat. Oragamins are found largely in the Crstam zone of the Kuph region.

Organoid: A group of organic-based life forms, including Humanoids. Organoids are found throughout the Galaxy.

Percotoids: Living entities containing the rare compound percitonic acid. Percotonic acid acts as an agent for metabolism, forming molecular complexes that react selectively with various biochemicals to sustain life.

Pyres: Fire-like organisms that continuously ignite an external chemical source, usually on the skin, to yield energy. Pyres are often surrounded by an oscillating flame that resembles an energy halo.

Rigmoid: These organisms have an intricate three dimensional structure and a complex indefinable shape. The chemical rigmoinix, present in large amounts in the Zayen Region, acts as the linking agent holding their body structure together.

Rltoes: These organisms have a high degree of life specialization in both the structure and functioning of individual body parts. This feature is maintained through the manipulation of gyman particles.

Safamin: Specialized life forms that use the noble gases (neon, argon and radon) for biochemical functioning.

Trygoes: Silicon-cellulose organisms that use plasto-electric charges for mobility. They reproduce through a complicated diffusion-regulated technique of ion exchange.

Urltoids: Giant organisms (often thirty metres in height) composed of ultra-light trachyan fibres (silver oxides with garmium molecules). Most urltoids live in suspension approximately fifty metres above their specific planetary surfaces.

Zytins: Energy-matter life forms, Zytins can convert from one an energy to a matter life form and back again depending on their environmental constraints.

Western History 65: Who were the Vikings?

The Vikings were a population of traders, raiders and settlers of Scandinavian origin (includes the Norse and the Danes) who played an important role in European history from the 8^th to the 11^th century. A pagan population with a distinct mythology, language system and writing the Vikings established many colonies throughout Europe and systematically influenced the geo-political development of the continent. The Viking heritage is scene throughout Europe in the place names, wood carvings, musical instrument development, coinage and literature. Norse mythology is pervasive in European culture. A Timeline of Key Events in Viking history is outlined below.

A Timeline of Viking History

789 – Vikings begin attacks on England

840 – City of Dublin, Ireland founded by the Vikings
862 -  Russian colony in Novgorod established by Viking Rus Ulrich.

866 – Vikings set up colony in York, England

871 – Alfred the Great halts Viking advance in England

879 – Kiev set up a centre of Viking domain (Kievan Rus)

900 – Vikings raid Mediterranean Sea

911 – Viking colony in Normandy established

981 – Erik the Red discovers Greenland

986 – Vikings reach Newfoundland waters.

995 – Norway becomes a Christian country. Christianity will spread to both Iceland and Greenland.

1002 – Irish under Brian Boru defeat Vikings

c. 1010 – Viking settlement in North America established. Leif Ericsson, the son of Eric the Red, is the founder. Territory is known as Vinland – colony located at L’Anse aux Meadows (Canada). Lief had already converted to Christianity by this date.

1013 – Danes conquer England

1028 – Knut (or Canute) rules as king of England, Norway and Denmark. Zenith of Viking power.

1050 – Founding of the City of Oslo in Norway.

1066 – Viking power deteriorates after the defeat of Harald Hadrada at the Battle of Stamford Bridge.

Source: Vikings with zest

Western History 64: Who were the Normans?

The Normans were a Scandinavian population group (of possible Danish, Icelandic and Norwegian extraction) who settled the region of France known as Normandy. Their name refers to their Norse origin and they are believed to have descended from pirates and raiders who settled the region under the leader Rollo.

It was Rollo, who swore an oath of fealty to a French crown as represented by Charles III of West Francia and over generations the Norse population mixed with the local Franco-Romans to produce the distinct Norman culture.

The Norman rulers were strict feudalists who raided as far south as Sicily and Cyprus, Eastward into the Levant, north into England and West to the Canary Islands. Famous Norman political figures included Richard I (who along with his brother took Sicily from the Muslims), Bohemond I and William the Conqueror. Their culture is most associated with Romanesque Architecture, a lively musical tradition and visual artwork that included illuminated manuscripts and tapestries.

English history was profoundly impacted by the Normans following the successful Invasion of the Home Country by troops loyal to Duke of Normandy, William, in 1066.   William defeated his Saxon rival Harold Godwinson (aka Haold II) at the Battle of Hastings, following Harold’s speedy advance southwards after he himself had defeated the Norwegian king Harald Hadrada at the Battle of Stamford Bridge.

William (also known as William the Bastard) would later be known as William the Conqueror. He would consolidate power in England and rule as the First Norman King until 1087. His reign is associated with the compilation of the famed Domesday Book (A manuscript/survey/census of much of England/Wales at the time), a growth in Norman based feudalism, the revolt of the Earls and fighting with his oldest son Robert. He was responsible though for the building of the White Tower (the old keep) which forms part of the Tower of London.

William the Conqueror

Western History 63: Who were some of the Anglo-Saxon monarchs of note?

The various English Kingdoms were ruled from the 5^th to the 11^th century by Monarchs of Anglo-Saxon origin. England was not a United land for much of this time and was comprised of the Kingdoms of East Anglia, Essex, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Wessex, Sussex (also known as the Heptarchy). Minor kingdoms such as Lindsey and Ynys Weith existed as well with many of these regions controlled by tribal chiefs and petty warlords.

Danish invaders made incursion into the Northern Kingdoms conquering territory that eventually became known as Danelaw with Danegeld often sought by the kings (in the form of a tax) to raise funds to protect against these Danish invaders. Some of the more important Saxon Kings are listed in Table 13 along some of the events that characterized their reign.

Table 13 Seven Saxon Kings

  

Monarch Name	Events of Note
Aethelbald (d. 757)	King of Mercia. During his realm Mercia would grow to dominate other Kingdoms.
Offa of Mercia (d. 796)	Consolidated control of the Midlands. Strengthened Christian tradition
Egbert of Wessex (d. 839)	Victor over the Mercians. Rise of Wessex superiority.
Alfred the Great (b. 849- d. 899)	Arguably the Greatest Saxon Monarch. King of Wessex from 871. Defeated the Vikings (Battle of Edington), improved the legal system, built up the navy and ruled during a prosperous time. He was also responsible for reforming Education.
Aethalstan (d. 939 )	King who united the Heptarchy into the Kingdom of England. Victor at the Battle of Brunabburh over Norse-Scottish Alliance.
Aethelred the Unready (d. 1016)	Was king during the defeat at the hands of the Vikings at Maldon in 991. Payment of the Danegeld to the Vikings would be required. Danish king Cnut would take power in England in 1016.
Edward the Confessor (d.1066)	Last King of the House of Wessex.  Ruled from 1042-1066. His death resulted in the succession crisis that eventually resulted in the end of Saxon rule and the rise of Norman Power.

Western History 62: Who was Otto the Great?

The sons of Louis the Pious (Charlemagne’s heir) warred with their father for much of the 820s and 830s. In 843 the Treaty of Verdun was signed and most of Charlemagne’s vast territory was divided between the sons with Louis the German receiving West, Middle and East Francia.  Various German monarchs following Louis held the title Holy Roman Emperor – a Primus inter pares title (first amongst equals) that often carried more prestige than power.

The most competent of these monarchs was Otto I also known as Otto the Great who ruled as king from 936-972 and was Holy Roman Emperor from 962.  It was Otto, the Duke of Saxony and King of Germany (and founder of the Ottonian dynasty), who defeated the pagan Magyars (Hungarians) at Lechfeld earning himself a title as a Christian savior.

He was crowned at the Old Basilica in Rome and followed in the footsteps of Charlemagne by continuing the literacy and cultural renaissance of the former. He improved relations with the Byzantines and consolidated power in Germany. During Otto’s day the Kingdom of Germany consisted of Saxony, Franconia, Bavaria and Swabia. Although he had conflicts with France, the Danish and Italian kingdoms his years of rule represented a high point in German history and his ability to use the church to further his strength was brilliant in the way that it played into his favour at the expense of the secular nobility.

City States of a Future Earth

From my Book - History of the Future

What follows is a list of ten major city states that played dominant roles in both the political and economic affairs of the city state period. Population numbers are based on 2180 census figures, unless otherwise notes.

Atlanta: As the capital of the influential Free States of Southern America, Atlanta grew to become the largest commercial and information center in the Western Hemisphere. A large population influx from the less viable economic regions of North America increased the population of Atlanta from fewer than 10 million in 2050 to 97 million, recorded almost a century later.

Berlin: Another service orientated city state, Berlin gained prominence for its highly innovative, organized and well-respected aerospace and technological design programs. Population: 86 million.

Calcutta: The Pearl of India was a shining example illustrating the positive transformation of a once poverty stricken urban sprawl into a relatively affluent modern city. Calcutta’s city planners revitalized the megalopolis through the wholehearted adaptation of the Biotron system. The city served as a center for micro-electronic production. Population: 157 million.

Kinshasa: The largest city in Africa, Kinshasa’s population surpassed that of Cairo in 2105. Kinshasa existed as the center for global textile production during the city state period. Population: 123 million.

Lima: Rapid population growth allowed this former Peruvian capital to become the second largest urban region in South America. Lima was noted for its vast factory resources primarily concerned with heavy industry such as mineral processing and alloy manufacturing. Population: 119 million.

Los Angeles: As the second largest city in North America, Los Angeles surpassed the population of Mexico City in 2075. The city’s survival was dependent on its production of luxury items, however, it continued to exist as an entertainment Mecca. Population: 114 million.  

Moscow: Although tightly controlled for over forty years by the semi-autocratic Neo-Muscovite Party, Moscow grew in size and importance in the early twenty-second century, when its strategic position between Asia and Europe allowed the city state to assume the role of a Trans-regional Trading Center. Population: 132 million.

New York: The return of a high incidence of crime in this densely populated city state, forced local authorities to adapt draconian strategies. Nevertheless, the city continued to function as a leading commercial and corporate advertising region thanks to its extensive global computer linkup with the outside world. Greater New York in the twenty-second century spread southward to include regions of the Eastern seaboard, like Baltimore, Philadelphia and Washington. Population: 129 million.    

Tientsin: Large peasant migrations from the rural areas of China dramatically increased the population of Tientsin. The migrations were inspired by the movement towards scientific urban-based food farms during the late twenty-first century. Tientsin surpassed both Beijing and Shanghai in overall population in 2124 and 2133 respectively, to become the dominant Chinese city state. Tientsin was also noted for its Nutrition Allocation Units (NAUs) that helped coordinate food distribution programs throughout much of the Far East. Population: 169 million.

Tokyo: A city described by Australian-born poet Fergus Hayden as a “Concrete Jungle incubating in a Steel Receptacle,” Tokyo served as the leading center of medical research on Earth, but was also admired for its diverse economy. Tokyo had the highest population density of all major city states.

Population: 181 million.