·
Energy is quantized and is produced in discrete packets. A quanta of
light energy is a Photon. The Energy of a photon is directly proportional to
its vibrational frequency. Planck’s constant, h, serves to turn this proportionality statement into
an equation.
·
Max Planck’s use of Boltzmann’s Thermodynamics
allowed him to solve the Blackbody Radiation Problem. This serves as the origin
of Quantum Mechanics.
·
Photons have zero mass and travel at the speed c
in a vacuum.
·
Compton
scattering demonstrates that photons have momentum. This is inversely related
to their wavelength.
·
Traditional particles have wavelike behaviour as
demonstrated in the Double Slit Experiment and Electron Diffraction
(Davisson-Germer)
·
Electrons have spin and angular momentum
(Stern-Gerlach)
·
Within energy levels electron behaviour can be
analyzed using standing wave physics Energy is trapped in the system so that
electrons don’t spiral into the nucleus. One can think of an electron as a probability
wave.
·
Electron orbits are probability functions.
·
When electrons move from one energy level to
another they release energy in the form of a photon.
·
The probability nature of quantum mechanics can
be analyzed using wave mechanics (Schrödinger) or matrix mechanics
(Heisenberg). Both give verified solutions. One cannot separate statistical
mechanics from Quantum Mechanics. Statistical uncertainty is a defining feature
of the system.
·
There is an inherent uncertainty in Quantum
Mechanics which makes perfect certainty on both momentum and particle position
impossible on a simultaneous level.
·
Anti-Matter is a real phenomenon. Its prediction
comes from the work of Paul Dirac and it has been verified at the experimental
level. Every particle has an anti-matter adjunct. The positron is the adjunct
to the electron. When matter and anti-matter annihilate each other they give
rise to Gamma Waves.
·
The Macroworld’s continuity breaks down at the
quantum level. It can be argued therefore that continuity is an illusion.
·
Matter in motion has a wavelength associated
with it. (De Broglie wavelength). The utilization of this idea is fundamental
to the development of the electron microscope.
·
Force transmission occurs through particle
exchange. Feynman diagrams provide an excellent
resource to analyze the movement of virtual photons that mediate the
Electromagnetic Force.
·
There are Four Fundamental Forces in Nature:
Strong Nuclear, Weak Nuclear, Electromagnetic Force and Gravity. Although some
would argue that gravity is in itself not essentially a force. They differ considerably with respect to
relative strength and range.
·
The Strong Nuclear Force holds together the
nucleus. It is mediated by Gluons. The Weak Nuclear Force is controlled by the
exchange of W and Z Bosons.
·
The Graviton is the hypothetical particle
thought to be involved in Gravitational interaction. It has not been identified
as of the time of writing although Gravity waves appear to be a real
phenomenon.
·
At high enough temperature it is believed that
all four forces were one. These separated very soon after the big bang. At high
temperatures for example the electromagnetic force and the weak force merge
into one – the Electroweak Force.
·
Attempts to bring all of the forces together
into a consistent model are part of the idea of Grand Unification. Gravity
seems to be the consistent hold out.
·
Quantum particles appear to be entangled at some
level. This is independent of locality and does not seem to be a function of
hidden variables. Its likely a characteristic of the system. Einstein referred
to the phenomenon as spooky action at a distance.
·
One can treat a quantum entity as either a wave
or a particle but never as a wave/particle at the same time (Complementary
Principle). Wave particle duality is real.
·
In Quantum mechanics the experimenter cannot
help but disturb the measurement. This introduces uncertainty as outlined in
the Copenhagen interpretation.
·
The Photoelectric effect where electrons are
ejected from a metal surface by incoming photons can be explained by the threshold
frequency of each photon. It is independent of the number of photons irradiating
the surface.
·
Collapsing the wave function through observation
is the key idea behind quantum encryption and eavesdropping shutouts.
·
A multitude of quantum states existing at the
same time underpins the notion of qubits and Quantum This allows for the system
to carry out significantly more calculations (at least in theory) than conventional computers.
·
The Higgs Boson Particle creates a Higgs Boson
field that some particles (not photons) can interact with. This gives the
particles elementary particles such as quarks and electrons their mass. It was
identified by the Large Hadron Collider in 2012.
·
The speed of light is constant is equal to c in
a vaccum. It is the same for all inertial frames of reference. There is no aether
in space. Electromagnetic waves don’t require a medium for propagation.
·
One cannot distinguish between the at rest case
and constant velocity. The same laws of physics are applicable in both cases.
There is no absolute frame of reference to judge motion from.
·
Time is a relative not an absolute quantity. It tends
on the frame of reference from which it is being determined.
·
Space (Length) are relative quantities. The
length as perceived by an outside observer contracts in the direction of
motion.
·
Simultaneity is not absolute. Events that occur
simultaneously in one frame of reference aren’t necessarily simultaneous in
another.
·
Fast moving particles appear to have a
substantial increase in linear momentum that
seem to indicate an increase in mass as measured from the frame of the
laboratory.
·
Space and Time are not independent but can be
linked via a spacetime set of axes.
·
Protons and Neutrons are composed of three
quarks each. There are six quark types. They differ with respect mass, charge
and a property called colour. A single quark can have a charge less than the
elementary charge. They can transition into each other and do not appear to
exist on their own. Quark structures are bound to each other by the Strong
Nuclear Force (Guon mediated).
·
Electrons, Tau and Muons cannot be broken down
into fundamental particles. They are known as leptons and react to the
electromagnetic force.
·
The Atomic nucleus has various energy levels
just like electrons in the outer shells of an atom
·
Electron orbits (probability distributions) have
various shapes designated s,p, d and f.
·
Each of the leptons has an associated neutrino number.
Neutrinos are difficult to detect but are not massless. They are produced in
nuclear reactions and have no charge.
·
The change in apparent half life of fasting Muons
passing through the Earth’s evidence is consistent with Time Dilations
associated with Special Relativity. Atomic clocks on planes also show time
differences that lineup with special relativity.
·
Kinetic Energy increases rapidly when a fast
moving particle is accelerated toward the speed of light. This is consistent
with an increase in relativistic mass.
·
Mass and Energy are equivalent and can be
related by the equation E= mc2. It is more accurate to talk about
the conservation of mass-energy as a unit instead of these two terms
independently.
·
One simply cannot add velocities together in
relative velocity problems (like one does in classical physics) but a modified
equation that brings in the speed of light limit must be employed.
·
For a particle travelling at the speed of light
time stands still.
·
All information cannot exceed the speed of light
in travel speed which makes c the
dividing line between cause and effect.
·
The vacuum of space has energy. It is also
seething with virtual particles. This has been observed with the Casimir
Effect.
·
The best model (based on evidence) that we have
of the particle nature of the universe is the Standard model – consisting of
Hadrons, Bosons and Leptons . However most physics are convinced that there is
a layer (or layers) of organization that exist below this.
·
The universe may be built on a multiplicity of fields
(electrical, magnetic, Higgs, quantum and others) that make all action
possible.
·
Quantum tunneling allows particles to pass
through an energy barrier which would not be possible in the Classical world.
This is a function of probability functions arising from the Schrödinger
Equation.
·
The Conservation Laws in Physics (Energy, Linear
Momentum, Angular Momentum etc) can be related to various symmetries via Noether’s
Theorem.
