What are the 10 most Important paradigm shifts in the History of Science?

Great Question on Quora (my answer)

 I tried with 10 but I believe that 12 does this answer more justice. There are others that I could add here viz. William Harvey’s work on the circulation system, the various developments in Optics, Acid-Base chemistry, Plate Tectonics, applications of Boolean Algebra, the Gas Laws, neuron physiology and topography. However I will go with these 12.

1. Copernican Revolution. (15th-17th century)

• Main Idea - Overthrow of the Geocentric model of the Universe. Subsequent developments - Kepler’s Three Laws of Planetary motion. Galileo’s observations. Orbital Periodicity. Newtonian Synthesis. Consequences - Rethinking of the centrality of humanity’s centralized position in the universe. Inspiration for further astronomical developments that now see the Milky Way as one of possibly two trillion galaxies in the universe.

Copernicus: Science at your Doorstep

2. Newton’s Laws of Motion (17th-18th century)

• Main Idea - Three Laws of motion that define the nature of velocity, acceleration, inertia, action and reaction and cause and effect. Build heavily on Galilean Empiricism and Relativity. Subsequent Development - Formalization of ideas on Momentum, Impulse, rotational mechanics and fluid flow. Practical application of the calculus and further extensions into Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics. Consequence - Mechanical determinism, clockwork universes and a framework for analyzing physical systems under Cartesian reductionism.

Classical Mechanics Timeline: source: citizendium

3. Laws of Thermodynamics (18th-19th centuries)

• Main idea - Conservation of Energy. Direction of heat flow. Organization and disorganization in a system. Absolute zero limits. Work-Energy equivalencies. (Three Laws plus one zeroth law). Subsequent Developments - Enthalpy and Entropy formalization. Gibb’s Free Energy. Hess’s Law. Kinetic Molecular Theory. Chemical Equilbrium. Physics of machines (Carnot, Rankin, Otto cycles etc). Heat exchange. Statistical Mechanics. Consequences - Arrow of Time, Constraints on system performance. Directionality of information. Key Driver for the Transformational era of the Industrial Revolution.

Source: Lawofthernodynamics.com

4. Unification of Electricity and Magnetism (19th-20th centuries)

• Main Idea - Electricity and Magnetism as related field phenomena. Unified mathematically by James Clerk Maxwell. Notion of the Electromagnetic Wave. Field ideas developed by Faraday. Earlier work - Oersted, Gauss, Weber and Ampere. Subsequent Development (or Parallel Developments) - Electric Motor, Generators, Relay Systems, Transformers, Dynamos, AC Current. EM Waves - Radio transmission - Microwaves. Consequences - Mechanization of society, reduction in mechanical work tasks (societal consequences), enhancement of information transfer.

Source: www.chegg.com

5. Atomic Theory (Early Models Ancient Greeks, 19th-20th centuries)

• Main Idea - The Atom as a building block of nature. Its elucidation into sub-atomic particles. Applied use in virtually all of the physical and life sciences. Subsequent Development - Understanding of chemical bonding, nuclear physics, molecular biology, radioactivity and nanotechnology. Consequences - Energy provision, medical applications (biotechnology), warfare and analytics.

Source: Key Figures in Atomic Theory picture source: Middle School Science Blog

6. Evolution by Natural Selection (19th century)

• Main Idea - Natural Selection acted on diverse traits as a driver for evolutionary change and species formation. Factors act on variation within population. Key thinkers - Darwin, Wallace. Influenced by notion of Old Earth (Hutton, Lyell) and Malthusian checks. Subsequent Development - Neo-Darwinian refinements (including modification based on genetics and mutation theory), taxonomic re-writes, cladistics/phylogenetics. Models of Gradualism and Punctuated Equilibrium. Consequences - removal of humanity as the apex of the so-called Ladder of Life, Models of descent from a common ancestor.

Charles Darwin source: Britannica

7. Quantum Mechanics (19th and 20th Century)

• Main Idea - The discrete nature of matter and energy at the most fundamental level. Earlier development by Max Planck comes out of the application of Statistical Mechanics (Ludwig Botzmann) to the Blackbody Radiation problem. Subsequent Development - Advances in the atomic model, Wave-particle duality, photoelectric effect, matter waves, photoelectric effect, photonic momentum, stellar evolution, development of the standard model, transistors and Energy transitions in atomic systems. Consequences - Key driver in the technological revolution and Computer Age with Integrated circuits, microprocessors etc. Challenges to Philosophical Determinism (Uncertainty), development of Electron Microscopes/Lasers.Possible models of consciousness.

Integrated Circuits were made possible by our understanding of Quantum Mechanics source: Total Phase.

8. Special and General Relativity (20th Century)

• Main Idea - Reworking of the notions of space, time, gravity, energy and momentum within a relative and non-absolute framework (albeit on the inherent postulate that the Laws of Physics hold for all observers). Subsequent Development - Mass-Energy Equivalency, Rework on Simultaneity, Impact on the Big Bang, Singularity Physics (Black Holes), Hidden Mass, Models of the future and past of the universe. Consequences - Key pillar in Modern Physics (alongside Quantum mechanics), rethinking causality. Macroworld consequences. Overarching theory for which Newtonian/Galilean models are low velocity approximations.

Space-time Diagram source: Gravity Probe B - Stanford U

9. DNA/RNA and Genetic Engineering (20th century)

• Main Idea: DNA and its sister RNA are the molecules of life and through processes of transcription and translation are ultimately responsible for building the protein that provides the structural and functional framework for living organisms. Subsequent Development - Better understanding of the mechanisms of hereditary (beyond the Mendelian model), Genetic Engineering, drug development/targeting, PCR, and CRISPR. Consequences - Break throughs in medical treatment (vaccines, monoclonal antibodies etc), tools in forensics, fertility. Overriding ethical considerations with respect to cloning and privacy.

Chemical Structure of DNA Source: Compound Interest

10. Germ Theory (18th-20th century)

• Main Idea: Microorganisms (Bacteria, viruses, viroids, protozoa etc) as the cause for many diseases. Development made possible by optics revolution (magnifying glasses, microscopes etc) and chemical assays. Subsequent Development - Antibiotics, antivirals, Immunization mechanisms and Antiseptics. Consequences - More effective disease treatment. Better outcomes for infant mortality and longevity. Destruction of Vitalism and Spontaneous Generation as earlier biological explanations for disease.

Germ Theory in Bacteriology source: Bitlanders

11. Feedback mechanisms(Cybernetics) (19th and 20th century)

• Main Idea: The understanding of positive and negative feedback loops as regulators of system functioning. Has application in a variety of the physical, information and life sciences. Subsequent Development - Mechanisms of Biological homeostasis (endocrine system, neuro-muscular framework, response to stimuli, plant trophisms, cell biology), Chemical Process control, artificial intelligence, decision analysis and Chaos Theory. Consequences - Broader understanding of stability of systems, cause-and effect analysis, understanding levels of complexity through factor analysis.

Cell homeostasis source: OpenCurriculum

12. Organic Chemistry (19th-20th century)

• Main Idea: Understanding of the chemistry around carbon and the ability to synthesize compounds that were once deemed outside the scope of chemistry. Subsequent Development - Modern Biochemistry, Polymerization (Plastics etc), Drug development, Nutritional Sciences Consequences - Improved medical treatment. Enhanced product development. Largely positive however there are environmental consequences as well (just like inorganic chemistry).

Functional Groups and Polymerization source: Britannica

Thoughts on a Winter Day II

There is no more certain avenue for disappointment than looking to a polirtician for moral and ethical guidance.

To those in power the constitution is at best an inconvenience.

False Messiahs are never in short supply.

There is nothing more expensive than a government program that promises something for free.

Napoleon's list of accomplishments (for better or for worse).

 From my Answer on Quora.

1. The Corsican Established the Code Napoleon which serves as the legal system for France and several other modern day nations to this day.
2. Napoleon’s Confederation of the Rhine would play an unexpected part in sparking the German Unification movement that would see success in the 1860s and 1870s (albeit at some expense to Gallic Pride).
3. He played a key role in the forming of a modern day Switzerland that would transition through his Helvetian Republic.
4. Napoleon’s military tactics revolutionized the use of artillery in warfare. The Emperor himself was a staunch student of the discipline having earned his spurs as an artillery commander.
5. The Royal Line of Sweden today is descended from the Napoleonic branch.
6. In many of his earlier conquests in particular his forces spread many of the ideals of the French Revolution (Liberté, égalité, fraternité). This however would take on more of an authoritarian feel as time progressed. Regional nationalist movement across the continent spread out in reaction to the territorial expansion of the French. In combination with Liberalism these would inspire a series of Revolutions in Europe in 1830 and 1848.
7. Like the movement for German Unification the drive for Italian Unification was catalyzed by the events of the Napoleonic Era and the futile attempts at the Congress of Vienna to stuff the changes of this turbulent period back into the box.
8. Napoleon’s emphasis on searching for individual merit with respect to his officers represented a sharp shift from the domination by the elite classes of the armed forces.
9. It was also as a consequence of the Napoleonic War that Britain would increase her naval footprint setting in motion the Era of Pax Britannica.
10. Napoleon set up the model for the first modern day police state initially under the guidance of Joseph Fouché (unfortunately many other future dictators - influential and tin pot - would continue in the same manner).
11. The British conquest of the Cape Colony and the War of 1812 both have roots (to varying extent) in the Napoleonic Wars.
12. In European circles Napoleon cemented France as a continental power extending with even broader significance a drive that had begin in the 17th century with Louis XIV.
13. He perhaps more than any before him laid the foundation for the notion of Total War.
14. His Egyptian campaign would lead to the discovery of the invaluable Rosetta Stone and the foundations for the academic field of Egyptology.
15. It was through the need to prevent food spoilage for the French Army (in their numerous campaigns) that Nicolas Appert (1809) developed the modern day canning approach - that included the sterilization of the content with heat before its placement in a hermetically sealed container.

Why is WWI less romaticized than WWII?

 My answer on Quora.

There wasn’t as clear a case of good v evil as there was for WWII. Yes the Kaiser had his faults (German action in Belgium in particular was horrendous) but on a scale of depravity he didn’t even come close to the Nazi despot.

In the East the Japanese military during WWII clearly transgressed all accepted norms of conduct with with the Rape of Nanking, their treatment of prisoners and war and the barbarism shown to conquered people. Defeating Tojo and co. scaffolded well into the dichotomy of the force of Light overcoming the Sith.

Add to that the clash of personalities in WWII …Churchill/Stalin v Hitler and you have many sub-plots that make for great reading and subsequent pedestal elevating, despite the fact that abuses were committed by both the Allies and the Axis. Nobody’s hands were clean although one can with careful analysis differentiate by degree of action.

WWII also had a much more obvious resolution than did WWI. It was also a greater expression of the notion of Total War in the way that it impacted civilian populations. In addition it posted a greater global impact that fed into the narrative of the ideological struggle. In a sense it represented a playing out of the politicism that engulfed the Modern world in the 20th century.

On a practical level the Generals and Admirals and Air Marshals were all the more competent in WWII, the weaponry vastly more impressive and the scope of tactics of greater study worthiness.

Where WWI did dominate from a Romantic perspective is that the quality of poetry dwarfed the later conflict. WWII lacked its Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon. Waiting around in trenches for events to happen was conducive to such writing.

Thoughts on a Winter Day I

The march toward tyranny will be a pleasant experience for many as the burden of freedom can indeed be harsh for the captive mind.

Democratic tyrants need not pass active restrictions they merely have to create the illusion that individual action is self defeating.

To sell a lie effectively (as do the elites) it is vital that one picks more credible liars.

The state of a democracy is a function of the integrity of its institutions. These degrade with the inherent march towards politicization.

No scientific result has any meaning unless one is familiar with the basic assumptions that precede data collection and analysis.

Sacrificing an uncomfortable empirical reality to the beauty of a mathematical model may be the greatest tragedy of all of science.

Never underestimate a person’s resolve to defend a wrong but popular paradigm.

The truth is that the vast swathe of humanity is merely along for the ride.

One need not verify an official lie if you have the power to isolate those who tell the truth.

Any political philosophy that can be misinterpreted will be misinterpreted.

One can always re-brand the same bad idea repeatedly to a population if you choose your words carefully and expand the fog of history.

In our rush to alleviate the struggle we tend to magnify the suffering.

Purposely Lazy Mind

One obvious reality that the pandemic has revealed is that the average person has such a poor understanding of Math and Science that they take whatever the authorities tell them without an ounce of skepticism. If the message is wrapped in officialdom then people have a tendency to jettison the detail. Those in power count on this.

Passing Thoughts...

 As of January 4th....

1. I am fully vaccinated but can still get Covid. Hell even the thrice vaccinated can get it. Just ask Elizabeth Warren.

2. The jury is out whether I will be more impacted by Omicron than the unvaccinated. Remember the original vaccine is geared to the Wild Type. A great deal of the Omicron mutations are on the spike protein.

3. I still need to be locked down despite the evidence that Omicron is far less lethal than other earlier variants.

4. Indoor dining is apparently still risky...so are schools (despite data to the contrary)

5. Government coping strategies haven't been changed to fit the new paradigm...Weren't lockdowns supposed to be an aspect of the past with high vaccination rates? One size does fit all.

6. Hospitals are still likely to be overwhelmed if we don't listen to the experts (whose modelling has been consistently wrong). Two weeks to flatten the curve.

Welcome to the New Normal.