Western History 101:What happened during the English Civil War?

The evolution of England into a powerful agent of liberalism (albeit in the form of constitutional monarchy) owes much to the English Civil War that engulfed the island between 1642 and 1651. The war erupted between the various Parliaments and the Royalist forces (backing King Charles I). At stake was the future direction that the governance of England would follow. The final victory by the Parliamentary forces represented the death knell for absolute monarchy in England.

Historians divide the war into three stages – the first (1642-1646), the second (1648-1649) and the third (1649-1651). In the first two stages the Royalists (Cavaliers) stood in opposition against the Long Parliament while in the third war the monarchy was challenged by the Rump Parliament.

What follows is an outline of some of the key events in the lead up to the war.

1625 – Charles I marries the catholic Henrietta Maria, the daughter of Henry IV of France. This was not viewed as a popular move in England.

1626 – Charles needs money to finance continental wars. He recalls Parliament.

1628 – Charles re-issues Thirty Nine Articles into Church of England. This was seen as a favourable move towards Rome and was scorned by Protestants.

1628 – Parliament issues grievance petition to Charles. At the center is war taxation issues.

1629 – Parliament takes a strong stance against Charles over religion and taxation. Issues the Three Resolutions. Charles dismisses Parliament. Several Members of Parliament will be arrested.

1630-1640 – Charles faces opposition in Scotland over his common prayer book. The taxation issue still dominates the discourse and Charles is forced to recall Parliament after an eleven year period of tyranny. Short Parliament meets for three weeks in 1640. Charles dismisses it.

1640 – Oliver Cromwell is elected to Parliament for a second time. He leads the voices pitted against Charles. Cromwell attacks Charles on both the taxation and church corruption issue. Charles battles the Scots. Long Parliament meets. Charles needs Parliament to grant him his money to fight the Scots.

1641 – Triennial Act is passed. It allows the Parliament to be summoned without royal approval. Revolts break out in Ireland. Grand Remonstrance is issued by Parliament. This outlines Parliament’s grievances with the king.

1642 – Charles clamps down on Parliament (arrests several MPs). Country moves towards civil war. Parliament takes control of the Militia. Civil War standard is raised on the 22^nd August 1642.

The Royalists had some early victories in the war ( Ripple Field, Tewkesbury, Chewton Mendip, Chalgrove Field, Landsdowne Hill, Bristol, Yorkshire, Adwalton Moor and Roundaway Down). However fortunes turned with Parliamentary (Roundhead) victories at Newbury, Marston Moor and Naseby. The New Model Army of Parliament proved to be a very capable force. Charles was captured in 1646 (he surrendered to the Scots), escaped and then recaptured. The Rump Parliament was called in 1649, it gave Parliament the right to make new law without the king. Charles was put on trial and then executed in 1649. The final Roundhead victory was secured at the Battle of Worcester in 1651.

The English Civil War resulted in a Republican Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell. The monarchy would be restored under Charles II in 1660 but by that stage political power had greatly shifted to favour Parliament. The Glorious Revolution would legally seal Parliamentary power in 1688.

                                                                     Oliver Cromwell

                                                                            Charles I

Western History 100: What was the Age of Reason?

The Age of Reason in the 17^th century can be viewed as the forerunner to the Enlightenment of the 18^th century. It was a time in the history of philosophy when thinkers strived to unify epistemology, ethics, metaphysics and logic into an integrated framework. Rationalists championed the primacy of mathematics as their framework for knowledge while empiricists voiced support for the physical sciences. The former was represented by Descartes, Spinoza, Hobbes, Bacon and Leibniz. The latter was outlined in the writings of Locke, Berkley and Hume.

Political philosophy took center stage with Thomas Hobbes’ great work the Leviathan and John Locke’s Two Treatise of Government. Hobbes saw strong government and the rule of law as central to a functioning society. Locke sought to balance this with his emphasis on liberty, private ownership of property and the sovereignty of the individual. Taken together both philosophies would serve to underpin the future development of a western democratic society.

One can also look at the Age of Reason as a triumph of modernist thought over earlier medieval scholasticism. It was at its base level cautious however it did inspire a stronger radicalism that would become more prominent in the continental philosophies of the later Enlightenment period.

John Locke

Cognitive Barrier Theory (COBAT)

This is an education theory I developed some time ago.

Piagetian Cognitive Analysis[i] largely focuses on the various stages that a child passes through in developing an intellectual platform for knowledge acquisition. Its vision is linear and incremental with a directive favoring an idealized outcome. In Cognitive Barrier Theory (aka COBAT) I look at Piagetian Development on a micro-level with an emphasis on the self-imposed barriers that I suspect delay the rate of progression of the regular learning process. My theory is based on an adopted version of a mini-grief cycle model and borrows freely from the arguments of Lev Vygotsky[ii] and Jerome Bruner[iii]. Its scope of functionality is broad and I envision the theory having applications beyond the pedagogic realm into the mechanism driving the moral and emotional development of the adolescent.

The Kübler -Ross Grief Cycle (KRGC)

In her 1969 book On Death and Dying[iv], Swiss Psychologist Elizabeth Kübler-Ross outlined the differential stages of the Grief Cycle that now bares her name. According to Kübler-Ross, after hearing bad news a person’s emotional state cycles through seven different stages viz. Shock, Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, Testing and Acceptance. At first, in shock the person is paralyzed by hearing the bad news. Denial sets in as one tries to avoid an inevitable, but this eventually spills over into anger caused by frustration. Bargaining is then sought as a way of escaping the problem but this too fails, leading to the eventual realization of being trapped in the new fate, a state that can lead to depression. Positive progress can only occur with the testing of realistic solutions and an acceptance of a new status quo. However the transitioning between stages can be complex and it is possible that movement from one stage to another may be significantly delayed or even worse, a person may be forced into a seemingly endless recycling of the seven stages with no hope of escape from the looping process. If psychological help is not sought the long term prognosis for the sufferer can become serious.

What Constitutes Bad News?

The key trigger for the KRGC is bad news - a vague term but certainly one that can be deconstructed. I see bad news as a negative shattering of normality that forces one to rethink and adjust one’s framework of comfort in a non-desirable manner. Clearly the extent of such a shattering can be extreme such as the death of a spouse or child, a context from which the initial ideas leading to the KRGC were developed. However bad news is a relativistic concept that is best understood through the eyes of a recipient. A consequence of which is the possible extension of the KRGC into a broader realm. In formatting COBAT I have extended the grief cycle to the ‘shattering’ that occurs when paradigms of knowledge comfort are destroyed.

An Explanation of the Mechanism behind COBAT

Take a simple paradigm shattering phenomenon – in science/math there are many of them – for convenience I will choose the concepts of integers that nullified the earlier idea of positive-only numbers that one learns in grade school. Integers represent a critical change in our thinking of the world of mathematics but without their presence any real future progress in algebra, trigonometry and vectors would be stifled. So we are forced in a sense to conform to their existence. For many this is not a serious hurdle but for others this is clearly not the case.
Adapting our brains to work through such a radical shift involves the unbundling of old ideas, the possible loss of a comfort region and a feeling of a new and often undesirable beginning. The brain can choose to resist (or cope) by jump starting a mini-version of the KRGC in an attempt to maintain the status (a type of intellectual ‘flight’ or ‘fright’ response). I have seen aspects of this in students that I have taught especially when the concept under review appears to be ‘overwhelming’ in level of difficulty. Some students break the cycle quickly others don’t. If a student falls into the latter category, this can become problematic especially if the looping is not terminated prior to the introduction of yet another new concept. What then may occur is the buildup of loops of irresolution that overlay one another creating a sense of powerlessness and eventually lowered self-esteem. In concept rich courses such as Math this may provide for the mechanistic pathology behind the condition of mathematics phobia[v] - a hypothesis worth investigating further.

Breaking the Loop and Overcoming the Mini-Grief Cycle Inspired Cognitive Barrier

The informed teacher or tutor is best equipped to assist the student in overcoming the cognitive barrier. However since the barrier is to a large extent self-imposed the student needs to possess the will to snap the cycle. In severe cases, which can evolve if a situation is left to continuously worsen, an educational psychologist may be required to facilitate the process as well. Vygotskian pedagogy, that uses a process of scaffolding[vi] to close zones of proximal development, may be useful but in a sense it too has to be modified and perhaps customized as the cycles of irresolution that are setup in the students mind may possess a unique physiology.
A flexibility of approach that speaks to the multiple intelligences[vii] may be utilized but what is perhaps just as important is the emotional energy and support that the teacher is capable of supplying. One may be tempted to see this as an exaggeration of a circumstance, but once cognitive barriers have created emotional walls the task of re-adjustment can be very difficult and requiring of a more holistic approach.

What other aspects of personal development may be influenced by the COBAT?

It is impossible in personal development to take the finest scalpel and separate one factor from all the others. Cognitive, emotional and moral progression are linked in a way that social scientists are only just beginning to understand. Consequently, if cognitive barriers are set up it is natural to expect an overflow into other realms. A falling self esteem arising from a feeling of being inadequate is an obvious outcrop but I believe that cognitive barriers may skew or alter moral development as well. A sophisticated moral outlook can often (but not always) be cultivated by broadening one’s perspective, questioning assumptions and understanding the need for an extended sense of self. This is or should be an underlying principle behind most pedagogy but such a platform may be compromised in an individual if cognitive barriers have frozen intellectual development into an immature framework that blocks such critical abstraction.


Additional Factors to consider

The mini-grief cycle approach to cognitive barriers rests within the psychopathology of the Transactional Model[viii]. It is very much environmentally dependent and must be viewed as such. It also takes on more of a discontinuous[ix] approach to cognitive development which is an inherent simplification that later versions may address. A further avenue of research that flows naturally from the theory is a possible investigation of the sensitive or critical period[x] nature of unresolved mini-grief cycles.

Conclusion

The COBAT provides a possible model for understanding how students, through an emotion driven process, build and augment hurdles toward learning. The process is worsened by an aggregation of mini-grief cycles of irresolution that can impact both the emotional and intellectual development of the learner. Fortunately early pedagogic assessment and an active teacher response are potentially available as stop gaps to prevent such situations from spiraling out of control.

[i] Piaget, J. (1972). Intellectual evolution from adolescence to adulthood. Human Development, 15, 1-12.
[ii] Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
[iii] Bruner, J. (1983) Child's Talk: Learning to Use Language, New York: Norton.
[iv] Kübler -Ross, E .(1969) - Collier Books, New York, NY.
[v] For more on mathematics phobia go to http://www.phobia-fear-release.com/math-phobia.html
[vi] Mok W.Y. and DiGiuseppe M (2006) CMYR Course Notes, MST Program, York University.
[vii] Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books.
[viii] Ennis, L (2006) Adolescence Course Notes, MST Program., York University.
[ix] Ennis, L (2006) Adolescence Course Notes, MST Program., York University.
[x] Ennis, L (2006) Adolescence Course Notes, MST Program., York Universit

Napoleon - The Coming of Empire

Key Milestones 

1799 - Napoleon returns to France and find the Republic bankrupt. The Directory is also unpopular with the people. Forms an alliance with Joseph Sieyès, Roger Ducos (Speaker of the Lower House - Council of Five Hundred), Lucien (his brother), Joseph Fouché (a director) and the Diplomat,/Political Chameleon Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord and seizes power in the 18th Brumaire coup d"tat.

1799 -  A New constitution is confirmed - Constitution of Year VIII - that makes Napoleon First Consul for ten years . Although there are two lesser Consuls the Republic has effectively transitioned into a dictatorship. Era of Plebiscites begins. Consulate will only last five years.

1802 - Napoleon becomes First Consul for Life through a plebiscite. Reformation of French education system.

1804 - Introduction of the Code Napoleon Legal System (Civil Code).

1804 - In the presence of the Pope Napoleon crowns himself Emperor. He was earlier on proclaimed Emperor by the Senate.

How do historians divide the periods in history?

My answer on Quora.

It depends on the civilization that they are looking at. In the West it seems to be focused on dominant political/economic structures. In China it is traditionally framed around dynasties. Ancient Egypt is sub-divided into kingdoms bracketed by Intermediate Periods. Invasion by foreign forces punctuate such divisions.

It also depends on the type of analysis being carried out. An economic historian will tend to prefer a different arrangement than a scientific or a political historian.

The division in the West (based on political structure) that seems most favoured (politically) based on my readings are

1. The Early Ancient World - Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Hittites, Assyria, Babylon (old and neo) and Persia. The Israelites, Phoenicians and other ancient people in the Levant are incorporated into this narrative.
2. Greek Civilization - broken down into the Minoan, Mycenean, Doric, Classic, Alexandrian and Hellenic Periods
3. Ancient Rome - Kingdom, the Republic, The Triumvirates, Early Empire, Good Emperors, Severan Emperors, Militarily Emperors, Division - East and West, Barbarian Invasion, Fall of the West, the Byzantine Experience.
4. Middle Ages - Early (Dark Ages), Middle, High (clerical domination)
5. Renaissance - Early, Middle, Late (includes Reformation + Age of Exploration+ Humanism,)
6. Religious Wars and Westphalian sovereignty (rise of the nation state)
7. Enlightenment - Scientific Revolution + Birth of Liberalism (Start of Modern History)
8. Industrial Revolution + Colonization + nationalism
9. Age of Ideology
10. The Great Wars
11. Cold War + Winds of Change
12. Information Age (Post Cold War) + post Christian structure

However a great deal of this is subject to opinion.

Western History 99: What were the various stages of the Thirty Years War?

The Thirty Years War was a conflict that bitterly impacted Central Europe between the years 1618-1648. It created untold hardship and represented at its essence a war between the Hapsburg States and their respective Allies (largely Catholic) and a Protestant opposition that was strategically supported by Catholic France. The war represented the apex of the Religious conflicts that had engulfed Europe since the Reformation of the early sixteenth century.

Five Phases traditionally define the war. These are

• ·         Bohemian Phase (1618-1620) – The largely Protestant state of Bohemia rebel over a dynastic claim against its Hapsburg Rulers (Imperial Forces).  Phase ends with the Imperial victory at the Battle of White Mountain and the attempted reinforcement of Catholic dogma in the area by the Holy Roman Empire.

• ·         Palatinate Phase (1621-1624) – The Protestant struggle shifts to German Palatinate area. Catholic forces are victorious at Fleurus and Stadtlohn. However an anti-Hapsburg alliance is set up by England, France, the United Provinces of the Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark, Savoy, Venice, and Brandenburg to fight Spain and the Holy Roman Emperor.

• ·         Danish Intervention (1625-1630) – The Danish King Christian IV joins in to support Protestant forces who have suffered a serious of setbacks. Catholic League Generals, Wallenstein and Tilly, largely beat back Danish forces who then withdraw from the War.

• ·         Swedish Phase (1630-1635) – The disastrous Siege of Magdeburg sees almost 25,000 Protestants murdered by Imperial forces. The brutal manner of these murders leads to the coining of the term Magdeburg justice (where no quarter is given). The Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus joins in the Protestant struggle. He records victories at Werben, the First Battle of Breitenfeld, Lech and Alte Veste but is held back at Furth. His greatest moment will occur at Lutzen where he will record his most illustrious victory over Wallerstein. However the battle will cost Adolphus his life. Imperial forces will regroup at Nordlingen to a record a critical victory in 1634. This will end the attempt by the Swedes to dominate Germany. Although the Swedes will record a final win at Wittstock.

• ·         French Intervention (1636-1648) – Fearful of the growing Imperial power the French under the political guidance of Cardinal Richelieu ally themselves against the Hapsburg threat. A spectacular French victory is recorded at Rocroi and another at Lens with the Swedes enjoying some success as well against Imperial forces. The War ends in 1648.

The Peace of Westphalia signed in 1648 ended the European Religious wars (of which the Thirty Year’s War was the final stage). Eight million people died as a consequence of turbulent period. The Peace is often seen as the beginning of modern International Politics as it established the Westphalian sovereignty. This formalized the notion that each state had an exclusive sovereignty in its territory. The framework is enshrined in the United Nations. 

The basic tenets of the Westphalia Peace itself though placed at the center the Treaty of Augsburg where all parties agreed that the prince in a particular area had the right to determine the religion of the state.

Fighting between the Holy Roman Empire and France though would continue until 1659 ending with the signing of the Treaty of the Pyrenees.

Would the French revolution have happened if it weren't for the American Revolution?

Yes it would have in my opinion. The chief causes of the French Revolution are largely independent of the American Revolution. Although one can make the case that the impact of the American Revolution greatly catalyzed the onset of the French Revolution (via debt payment and the influence of liberalism).

The following were however the key drivers.

1. Economic collapse caused by poor productivity (often a function of severe winters) that was further exacerbated by grossly unfair taxes/tithes levied on the 3rd Estate. Push back by both the 1st and 2nd Estates against prudent compromise (recommended by several finance ministers - Necker, Turgot etc) further worsened the issue. Many of these economic problems were also compounded by France’s other wars (Seven Years war for example) and the Ancien Regime’s overextended imperialistic endeavors that were predicated on failed mercantilism.
2. Growing grass root Bourgeoisie agitation for political representation
3. The Influence of the Philosophers - Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, Montesquieu etc. that highlighted an unsustainable class structure that was on a collision course with both Enlightenment and later Romantic values.
4. Weak leadership by Louis XVI and an incompetent elite that operated around a bubble located at Versailles.