What was the Akkadian Empire?

The Akkadian Empire emerged within the broader Mesopotamian civilization and, at its height, covered an area roughly comparable in size to modern-day Turkey. The founder of the empire was King Sargon the Great, who ruled from approximately 2334 to 2279 BCE. The name “Sargon” is generally understood to mean “true king” or “legitimate king.” The Akkadians were a Semitic-speaking people, and the empire brought together Akkadian-speaking populations with the various Sumerian groups and city-states of Mesopotamia.

Sargon extended his authority across much of Mesopotamia and into neighboring territories, including Elam. Akkadian became the principal administrative language of the empire, although Sumerian continued to be widely used, particularly in religious and cultural contexts. Although the empire lasted for roughly two centuries before collapsing around 2154 BCE, its political and cultural legacy was considerable. It appears to have established a model of centralized imperial rule that influenced the later Assyrian and Babylonian empires.

The empire was centered on the city of Akkad, or Agade, although its exact location remains unknown. The Akkadians inherited much of the religious tradition of the Sumerians and worshipped a pantheon of powerful deities. Among the most prominent were Anu, the god of heaven; Enlil, associated with air, authority, and divine kingship; Enki, the god of freshwater, wisdom, and creation; and Ninhursag, a mother goddess associated with the earth, fertility, and creation.

The rise of the Akkadian Empire therefore represented more than the conquest of one Mesopotamian kingdom by another. It was one of humanity’s earliest examples of a centralized territorial empire, bringing diverse peoples, languages, cities, and religious traditions under a single political authority.

Did the Nazis pay for the war crimes they committed?

 In the years that followed World War Two , many of the leading figures of the Third Reich were brought to justice, but others committed suicide, disappeared, or escaped to foreign countries. As a result, justice was delivered to some, but never to all.

Adolf Hitler for one never faced a courtroom. As Soviet forces closed in on Berlin, Hitler remained in his underground bunker and committed suicide on April 30, 1945. His propaganda minister, Joseph Goebbels, followed shortly afterwards. After diabolically poisoning their six children, Goebbels and his wife Magda committed suicide. Heinrich Himmler, the head of the SS and one of the principal architects of the Holocaust, was captured by the British but killed himself with cyanide on May 23, 1945. It is believed that Himmler tried in vain to negotiate an agreement with the British regarding his safety.These men avoided a public trial, but they did not survive to enjoy the world they had tried to create.

Other leading Nazis were not so fortunate. Hermann Göring, Hitler's designated successor and commander of the Luftwaffe, was captured and placed on trial at Nuremberg. He was sentenced to death, but ingested cyanide shortly before his execution. Julius Streicher, one of Nazi Germany's most notorious antisemites, was convicted and hanged. Alfred Rosenberg, a leading Nazi ideologue, was also convicted at Nuremberg and executed. Hans Frank, who had ruled occupied Poland through terror and persecution, was sentenced to death and hanged.

The military leadership also faced punishment. Wilhelm Keitel and Alfred Jodl, two senior German commanders, were convicted at Nuremberg and executed. Their trials demonstrated that military rank did not automatically protect those who had participated in Nazi crimes. The Wehrmacht was never clean as many of its apologists have asserted over time.

 Martin Bormann, one of Hitler's closest political associates, disappeared during the final battle for Berlin. He  was initially believed to have escaped but later evidence established that he had died in Berlin. Nevertheless, he had already been tried and sentenced to death in absentia. 

Albert Speer, the Architect of the Third Reich and a personal friend of Hitler provides a different example. Hitler's armaments minister admitted responsibility for aspects of the Nazi system but escaped the death penalty. He was sentenced to twenty years in prison. After his release in 1966, he lived until 1981. His case demonstrated that even among the Nazi leadership, punishment was not uniform.

Some figures escaped justice altogether. Josef Mengele, the infamous SS doctor at Auschwitz, fled Europe after the war and eventually lived in South America. Despite international efforts to find him, he was never captured or tried. It is now believed that he died  in Brazil in 1979. Heinrich Müller, chief of the Gestapo, disappeared during the collapse of Berlin and was never brought before a court. Other Nazi criminals similarly escaped to South America and elsewhere.

The fate of Franz Halder and ‘Smiling’ Albert Kesselring also shows the intricacy of post-war justice. Halder, a former Chief of the German General Staff, was captured but never prosecuted at Nuremberg. Kesselring, however, was tried by a British military tribunal for war crimes in Italy. He was initially sentenced to death but the sentence was later reduced, and he was released from prison in 1952.

The Nuremberg Trials and the related trials established an important principle: individuals could be held personally responsible for crimes committed by a government, even when those individuals claimed they were simply following orders. Nuremberg could never punish every perpetrator. Millions had suffered, and no sentence could restore the lives that had been destroyed.

So did the Nazis pay for their sins in this life? The final answer, therefore, is uncomfortable. Justice was done, but justice was incomplete. Some of the architects of Nazi Germany were punished, some took their own lives, and others escaped. Whether they ultimately answered for their actions beyond this life is a matter of personal faith and belief. What history can tell us is that, in this life, the Third Reich  was destroyed, many of its leaders were punished, and their crimes were revealed to the world.