Western History 91: Why was Charles V such an important monarch?

Charles V was the Holy Roman Emperor between 1519-1556 and arguably the most powerful figure of this era. He presided over a great deal of territory in Europe and the colonial world (west, central, southern Europe, the Americas and Asia) during a time when the political milieu was affected by the emerging Reformation crises. Charles was born in 1500 and inherited four million square kilometers of territory that included the Holy Roman Empire, the Spanish Empire (where he ruled as Charles I) and the Duchy of Burgundy. His grandparents on his maternal side were Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castille (whose marriage united Spain). On his paternal side his grandparents were Maximilian I (previous Holy Roman Emperor) and Mary of Burgundy. This lineage gave him claims as an heir to both the Austrian Habsburg and French Valois dynasties.

His reign was dominated by war. The Habsburg-Valois conflict saw his forces pitted against the French, he held off Turkish advances in Hungary and Modern Day Romania and clashed with various German Princes in the Religious struggles of the 16^th century.

It was Charles who took the lead as the champion of Catholic Orthodoxy and it was Charles himself who called Martin Luther in 1521 to appear before the Diet of Worms. He would later outlaw Martin Luther.

Charles also championed the Council of Trent (that drove the Counter Reformation) and took a strong stance against the Lutheran Schmalkaldic League. His forces were victorious against those of the Protestants at the Battle of Mühlberg but were beaten back in the Netherlands.

Charles would abdicate in 1554 handing over control of Sicily and Naples to his son Philip who would become King of Spain in 1556. His brother Ferdinand I would take over as King of Austria and Holy Roman Emperor. Charles would spend the remainder of his life as a Monk at the Monastery of Yuste in Spain.

                                                                  Charles V

Western History 90: What happened during the Religious Wars of the 16th century?

The year 1517 is normally associated with the Protestant Reformation. From the date forward until the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 Europe would be split largely along religious lines that reflected the Three Christian Traditions – Catholicism, Lutheranism and Calvinism. Added complexities that emerged from the power politics of the day, such as Catholic France standing in opposition to the Catholic Holy Roman Emperor, would further complicate a brutal and bloody period in European history.

What follows is a timeline of the key events leading up to but not including the Thirty Years war (1618-1648).

1522 – Knights Revolt in Germany against Roman Catholic Church

1524-1525 – German Peasant’s War. Ends in failure.

1535 – Anabaptist riots in Amsterdam

1546-1547 – First Schmalkadic War –Imperial forces defeat Schmalkadic Lutheran League

1552-1555- Second Schmalkadic War(or Prince’s revolt) – Protestant victory confirmed in Treaty of Augsburg. Rulers under the Holy Roman Empire banner could choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism within their state. Calvinism was still excluded.

1562-1598 – French Wars of Religion – Uneasy Truce. Allows for the Emergence of Henry IV of Bourbon (discussed later).

1568-1648 – Eighty Years War - Peace of Münster grants the Protestant Dutch independence from Spain. Southern Netherlands (largely Belgium today) still associated with Spain.

Western History 89: What events bracketed the Rise and Fall of the Holy Roman Empire?

The superstructure Holy Roman Empire (HRE) played an important role in the politics and religious affairs of Central and Southern Europe between 800 AD until its dissolution by Napoleon I in 1806. The territory associated with the HRE included Modern Day Germany, Austria, Switzerland, the Low Countries, Czech Republic, Liechtenstein, Northern Italy, Eastern France (Burgundy) and Western Poland. It reached its greatest extent between 1155 and 1268 under the Hohenstaufen Dynasty and was essentially governed by an elective monarch and a Legislative Diet. Latin was the Principal administration language in earlier years but this would change to reflect regional differences. The population of the HRE stood at about 16 million in and around 1500. This number would increase to 24 million by 1800 (a drop from 26 million+ in 1786).

Four kingdoms are traditionally associated with the HRE. These are – Germany (from 962), Italy (962-1648), Bohemia (from 1002) and Burgundy (1032 to 1378).

Key Dates in the History of the Holy Roman Empire

800 – Charlemagne is crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day.

887 – Partition of the Empire into Five Kingdoms – West Francia (France), East Francia (Germany), Burgundy, Italy and Lorraine. West Francia will be permanently detached.

919- Rise of German Ottonian Dynasty

962 – German domination of HRE is established when Otto I becomes Holy Roman Emperor.

1027-1125 – Salian dynasty dominates Empire

1138 – Feudal Hierarchy is entrenched with Hohenstaufen Line

1347 – Rise of the Luxembourg Line of Kings. More direct control of Lands.

1356 – Golden Bull confirms Elected Monarchy

1438 – Beginning of Habsburg Control of the Imperial title. Power center is in Austria.

1480 – Limited reform sets up the Reichstag (until 1570)

1519-1556 – Empire’s politics are influenced during this period by Charles V arguably the most powerful sovereign of his age.

1618-1648 – Thirty Years War. Ends with Treaty of Westphalia.

1681-1682 – Empire in struggle against Turks and French.

1740 – Austria/Prussian rivalry weakens Empire

1792 – Further conflict arises from French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars

1806 – Emperor Francis II dissolves Empire denying Napoleon to take the title of Emperor.

Western History 88: What was the Counter Reformation?

The Counter Reformation represents the Catholic Church’s response to the Protestant Reformation. The response unfolded along several lines that included a defense of Catholic doctrine, a realignment in clerical structure, the establishment of new orders, a spiritual front and a political response.

A great emphasis was placed on a devotional life and a personal relationship with Christ but a harsher side manifested itself in the Roman Inquisition. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) called for the excommunication of Elizabeth I of England and the church also took a harsh stance against reformers such as Giordano Bruno.

At Trent the church reaffirmed the notion of Transubstantiation (where the bread and wine at the sacrament is believed to transform into the body and soul of Christ). The Roman Catechism was expanded to improve clerical knowledge. A greater focus on administration and church discipline was mandated.Numerous religious orders would emerge from the Counter Reformation of which the Jesuits with their emphasis on education (including education of girls) and missionary work would take center stage.

The Counter Reformation would impact the art and the Sciences. Baroque art in particular is believed to be an outgrowth of such novel developments. The Gregorian Calendar also has a Counter Reformation root of origin. Key players in the Counter Reformation include – Ignatius of Loyola, Teresa of Avila and John of the Cross. Teresa is noted for her establishment of the Carmelite Order of Nuns. Ignatius of Loyola wrote the influential treatise Spiritual Exercises and John of the Cross was a leading Spanish mystical figure.

                                                                       Ignatius Loyola 

Western History 87: What was the Reformation?

The Reformation was an extremely important religious and political movement that bought about a break in Western Christianity. Early Reformers – Jan Hus, John Wycliffe, Girolamo Savanarola -  had challenged the dominion of the Catholic Church but it was the drive of Martin Luther, initiated by his Ninety-Five Theses (1517), that galvanized the movement. Luther would be joined by Huldrych Zwingli (Zurich), John Calvin (Geneva) and individuals such as Andreas Karlstadt and Philip Melanchthon.

In Luther’s Ninety Five Theses he criticized the sale of indulgences, denounced the idea that the Pope had authority over purgatory and that the doctrine of Saints was a notion lacking in biblical verification. He also stressed a strong emphasis on a scripture and the belief in faith in Jesus (as opposed to good works) as the only path to salvation from sin.

Luther’s ideas spread rapidly as a consequence of Gutenberg’s Printing Press with Protestant movements taking hold in Germany, Scandinavia, the Baltics, France, Hungary, England, Scotland and the Netherlands.

There is some debate as to what factors drove the Reformation. Corruption in the Catholic Church was a big issue, but so was the attitude of the various regional rulers. The universities played a role as did trade, a widening of political autonomy and a weakening of primogeniture in specific regions

An English Reformation began in 1534 under Henry VIII and continued under Edward VI and Elizabeth I.  Radical Reformers also led with the Anabaptist movement (that offered resistance to the state authority as well) but this would ultimately fail with the collapse of the German Peasant Revolt.

As an overall movement though Reformers often clashed. Zwingli and Luther for example differed over the Real Presence of Christ at the Mass (Zwingli saw the mass as merely representative Luther did not).

Geneva based John Calvin, like Luther was excommunicated by the Pope, he was a champion of the doctrine of Predestination and the Absolute Sovereignty of God over Salvation. His philosophies have impacted several Christian traditions including the Reformed and Presbyterian Churches (John Knox in Scotland).

The net effect of the Reformation was to erode the authority of the papacy and to divide Western European into two Religious Camps – One Protestant the other Catholic. It has been argued that the Protestant Work ethic favoring more working hours, a free market, expanded education opportunities and self sufficiency is a function of this schism.

                                                                        Luther and Calvin

World Cup Football

It's Just my Opinion

(I will leave our pre WWII competitions as my knowledge with respect to these is very limited).

Ten Greatest Tornaments

1. Mexico 1970

2. Spain 1982

3. W. Germany 1974

4. England 1966

5. Mexico 1986

6. Switzerland 1954

7. France 1998

8. Germany 2006

9. Sweden 1958

10. USA 1994

Five Worst Tournaments

1. Italy 1990

2. Chile 1962

3. South Africa 2010

4. Brazil 1950

5. Japan/South Korea 2002

Ten Greatest Winning Teams

1. Brazil 1970

2. Germany 2014

3. Brazil 1958

4. Italy 1982

5. France 1998

6. England 1966

7. W. Germany 1974

8. Argentina 1986

9. Spain 2010

10. Brazil 1962

Five Worst Winning Teams

1. W. Germany 1954

2. Uruguay 1950

3. Argentina 1978

4. Brazil 1994

5. Italy 2006

Ten Best Teams Not to have won the Tournament

1. Hungary 1954

2. Netherlands 1974

3. Brazil 1982

4. France 1986

5. Poland 1974

6. England 1982

7. Italy 1990

8. Germany 2006

9. England 1986

10. Germany 2010

Five Poor Teams that fluked their way to the final

1. Argentina 1990

2. Italy 1994

3. Germany 2002

4. W. Germany 1986

5. France 2006

Ten Greatest Shock Results

1. W. Germany 3 Hungary 2 - 1954

2. USA 1 England 0 - 1950

3. North Korea 1 Italy 0 - 1966

4. Cameroon 1 Argentina 0 - 1990

5. Senegal 1 France 0 - 2002

6. Algeria 2 W. Germany 1 - 1982

7. South Korea 2 Italy 1 - 2002

8. Northern Ireland 1 Spain 0 - 1982

9. Costa Rica 1 Italy 0 - 2014

10. South Korea 2 Germany 0 - 2018

Early History of Napoleon Bonaparte

Napoleon Bonaparte was a pivotal figure in the history of Modern Europe. He extended the gains of the French Revolution and redefined the Nation State. While some have dubbed him a megalomaniac. Others see his impact across the continent as the biggest driver in the expansion of both Liberalism and Nationalism. Regardless of one's stance on the issue it is clear that he defined the era from 1799 to 1815 setting in motion the Europe of the 19th century and enshrining a vibrancy to a history that characterized the European ascendancy.

1769 - Napoleon is born to a petit aristocrat family on the Island of Corsica. He is one of eight (five boys and three girls). Family is of Italian origin. Siblings are : Joseph (elder brother), Lucien, Elise, Louis, Pauline, Caroline and Jerome.

1779 - Enters military school at Brienne-le-Château. Other students made fun of his Corsican accent. Distinguishes himself in Mathematics and sailing.

1784 - Admitted to elite École Militaire in Paris. He becomes the first Corsican to graduate from the school.

1785  - Gains commission as Second Lieutenant in Artillery Regiment.

1792 - Napoleon is a strong supporter of the Jacobin movement and clashes with Corsican separatist Pasquale Paoli.

1793 - Siege of Toulon. Leads Republican forces in capturing the city. Has further success at the Battle of Saorgio the following year.

1794 - Placed under House Arrest  for possible association with the Robespierres but is released.

1795 - Helps put down a Royalist rebellion with 'a whiff of grapeshot' on the 13 Vendémiaire.

1796 - Marries Joséphine de Beauharnais.

1797 - Involved in the Italian Campaign of the War of the First Coalition. Records victories at Castiglione, Bassone, Arcole and Rivoli.  Victory at Battle of Tarvis, On October 17Napoleon  signs the Treaty of Campio Formio with Austria.  Ends the War of First Coalition (1792-1797) . He will return victorious to Paris on the 5th of December and hailed as a hero. France now has control of most of Northern Italy and the Low Countries. Austria is placed in charge of Venice (1,100 year old independence of that Republic comes to an end). Although the French loot the city beforehand.