Western History 74: What were some of the Important Italian City States?

Between the 9^th and 16^th century the Italian peninsula was dominated by several trade based city controlled by very influential families. The oldest of these city states was Venice which broke away from the Byzantine Empire and set itself up as a Republic (run by the Doge and the Great Council of Venice) in 742.

The City States were dynamic entities that largely functioned as independent unions although many of them were allied with various partners in geo-political leagues of convenience. Trade was a key factor in the success of this system that for great stretches of time was dominated by such notable families as the Borgias, Medicis and Sforzas. One could even argue that the modern economy developed from these states who originated the practice of bookkeeping and accounting.

It was in the milieu of the city states that a great renaissance in the arts would  be realized, a seeding of culture and the resurrection of classical ideas that would spread throughout the continent. Table 14 lists some of the key city states that emerged.

Table 14

Principal Italian City States

City State	Region	Points of Significance
Bologna	Emilia-Romagna (North-Central)	Part of the Lombard League. Expanded rapidly from the 12th century onward. Noteworthy cultural and artistic center.
Florence	Tuscany	Cradle of the Renaissance. Economy built on strong wool industry. Political power controlled by the Medici family – patron to the art of Michelangelo, da Vinci and Botticelli.
Genoa	North-Western Italy.	Maritime Republic. Known for its skilled warriors (crossbowmen) and merchant force. Also important center for Banking. Birthplace of Christopher Columbus.
Milan	Lombardy	Important city during the Renaissance. Famed for its guilds. Politics dominated by the powerful Sforza family.
Naples	Campania (South)	A dynamic city that attracted Pisan and Genoese merchants, Naples was at different times controlled by various outside interests (German and Spanish). It did however play host to artists that included Boccaccio, Petrach and Giotto
Padua	North-Eastern Italy	Famed for its university that at one time Galileo Galilei as a lecturer, Padua has a very stable legislative assembly and was noted as a site center for humanist thinking. The city was later dominated by Venice.
Pisa	Tuscany	Maritime power. Set up colonies a far afield as the Levant. Went into decline after defeat against Genoese in 1264.
Rome	Central-Western Italy (Lazio)	Chief city in the Papal States. A one time leader in the Italian Renaissance but lost some of its clout during the Western Schism (1378-1417) when several claimants vied to head the Papal  See.
Siena	Tuscany	Ancient City. Republic lasted for four centuries until 1551 but the city went into decline following the Italian Wars (1551-1559).
Venice	Veneto	One time Capital for International Finance. It played a key role in launching the Fourth Crusade and the Battle of Lepanto. Dominant maritime power with colonies located throughout the Adriatic Sea Power rested with the Doge (Chief Magistrate) and the Great Council. Home city of Marco Polo.

Western History 73: Who were the Seljuk Turks?

The Seljuk Turk Empire was a Turko-Persian medieval power that controlled a vast region stretching from Asia Minor, through the Levant, deep into Persian and Central Asia. It was founded in 1037 by Tughril Beg and was a Sunni Empire. The Seljuk’s played a role in exporting both Persian and Turkic culture. The Empire’s zenith occurred around 1092 following the death of Malik Shah I.

It clashed frequently with the Byzantine Empire scoring a major victory over its Christian foe in 1071 at the Battle of Manzikert. Famous Emperors include Alp Arslan (victor at Manzikert), Tughril himself (who captured Baghdad from the Abbasids) and Malik Shah I (who masterminded the expansion into Persia).

After the death of Malik Shah I, his sons clashed with each other weakening the Empire. It further suffered defeat at the hands of the Georgians and was weakened by clashes with the Crusades.  By the 13^th century the Seljuks were in decline with a new Empire, the Ottoman’s rising up in their place.

The legacy of the Seljuks is seen in their promotion of academic scholarship. They were great patrons of the art and literature and under their rule the Persians enjoyed a renaissance characterized by the writing of Philosopher poet Omar Khayyam and al-Ghazali.

They made contact with Western Europe through the twin vehicles of war and trade thus spreading many of their learned gains to a broader base.

Teacher Reflection - First Day of Class

It was the first day of the second semester yesterday. New classes new students. There is a certain anxiety to be expected with many students assessing their fate for the next five months. As a general philosophy I follow the guideline outlined below for Day One.

1. Set the Tone for the class with respect to behavior (most important for Applied Classes).
2. Hand out the Course Introduction Document that very clearly specifies the mark breakdown and policies around late submissions. There should be no ambiguity here.
3. Emphasize that extra help will be available and that you as a teacher are approachable and indeed are a human being.
4. Only hand out textbooks if the course numbers are expected to be relatively stable.
5. Define a seating arrangement if necessary (although I generally avoid this)
6. Tell the students a bit about yourself (kids like that) and your expectations. Allow them to speak freely about their concerns.
7. Use a video hook or group activity to set the initial interest in the course.
8. Start the ball rolling with some work. Momentum in this regards is key (no physics pun intended).
9. If applicable give the students a quick Diagnostic Assessment to provide a rough guide of overall skill levels.
10. Stress very clearly that you are on their side to facilitate success but the ultimate factor in the success equation is the student themselves. They have to take responsibility for their own learning.
11. With classes that are expected to have disciplinary problems it is better to take a tougher approach (but a fair one nevertheless) from the get go.You can always soften up a bit later based on feedback.

An Alternative Future History - Entry I

2025 to 2045: The Great Trade Blocs

This period beginning in 2025, marked the rise and fall of the Great Trade Blocs around the globe. Regional trading alliances developed in the twentieth century, such as the European Union (EU), continued to expand. New blocs, most notably the Asian Economic Union (AEU), were created.

The regrouping of nations, produced new power–brokers, as access to bloc markets refocused political and economic influence in bloc structures. Initially, the bloc system also served to facilitate the development of the economies of Asia, Africa and Latin America, creating unprecedented prosperity.

However, crime syndicates, including the Florence-based Sons of Medici and the Asian Eastern Triads, ultimately corrupted the bloc framework, employing its trading structure to establish and entrench mafia influence (c. 2030-2060). Numerous financial scandals implicating legitimate public office-holders further undermined the attempt to create more stable free trade.

The three most significant blocs of this era were:

Asian Economic Union (AEU): Founded in 2012, the AEU grew to become the largest trade bloc of the era, comprised of Cambodia, China,[1] India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea,[2] Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, the Pacific Island Nations, Pakistan, the Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam. By 2040, the AEU had a combined Gross National Product (GNP) of $66trillion (USD), seventy percent derived from manufacturing and production. In 2052, a political disagreement caused a group of nations, led by China, to break away and form the rival Asian People’s Forum (APF).

American Federation of Trading Nations (AFTN): The expansion of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), ultimately resulted in the creation of the AFTN. The original NAFTA nations―Canada, Mexico and the United States of America (USA)―were joined by the Central American, South American[3] and Caribbean nations in 2012. Australia and New Zealand joined the AFTN in 2018, after rejection by the AEU. By 2040, the AFTN reported a combined GNP of $62 trillion (USD), making it the second largest trading bloc on Earth.

European Union (EU): The EU gradually enveloped all European countries by 2020, including Eastern Europe and Scandinavia, in addition to the original Western European nations. A combined GNP of $60 trillion (USD) was reported in 2040, sixty percent derived from trade in information.

Smaller trading blocs included the Russian-dominated New Eastern Bloc (NEB), the West African Union (WAU), the Southern African Economic Communion (SAEC), the East African Forum (EAF) and the Middle Eastern Commerce and Trade Alliance (MECTA).

From the Uppanishad.

I am not Hindu but I find much of their philosophy to be incredibly fascinating. The following is such an example:

That supreme Brahman is infinite, and this conditioned Brahman is infinite. The infinite proceeds from infinite. If you subtract the infinite from the infinite, the infinite remains alone.

Western History 72: What were some of the key milestones of the English-Scottish Wars?

Conflicts between the English and Scots were largely focused on land and political succession. These date back as early as the sixth and seventh centuries in the fight between Northumbria and the Picts.  Several battles were fought in the 11^th and 12^th centuries but it was in the 13^th to 16^th centuries that war between these two people manifested itself in the broader First and Second Wars of Scottish Independence, the Border Wars, the Anglo-Scottish wars and the Rough Wooing. What follows is a quick chronicle of these events.

1296 – Start of First War of Scottish Independence. English take Berwick-upon-Tweed and are victorious at the Battle of Dunbar.

1297 – William Wallace rebellion against English is underway. Scots undertake a successful raid at Scone and defeat English at Stirling Bridge.

1298 – Edward I’s forces defeat Scots at Battle of Falkirk. Wallace resigns as Guardian of Scotland.

1304 – English take Stirling Castle. Scots beaten back beforehand at Happrew.

1305 – Wallace is captured and executed.

1306 – Scottish rebellion led by Robert the Bruce soon to become King of the Scots.  Scores victory against English at Glen Trool and Loudon Hill.

1314 – Scots defeat English at Bannockburn in 1314. Great victory for Robert the Bruce over Edward II. Scottish independence is secured for the time being.

1320 – Declaration of Arboath – Affirmation of Scottish Independence sent to the Pope.

1328- Uneasy peace reached with the English in 1328 – Signing of The Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton

1332-1357 – Second War of Scottish Independence. David II retains Scottish throne. Independence from England secured.

Mid 15^th century – Resumption of hostilities between England and Scotland.

1512 – English defeat Scots in the Flodden Campaign

1541 – Scots are defeated in the Solway Moss Campaign. Period of the Rough Wooing.

1546 – Scotland divided by factionalized fighting between pro-Catholic and Protestant Elements.

IQ Tests

20 Important Realizations

1. A person's intelligence is a function of both their genetics and the environment. Genetics tend to be the larger factor (roughly 2:1 split).

2. The best IQ tests are those that have a high g loading. The g-factor is defined as general intelligence and is essentially a function of your brain's ability to process information.

3. IQ tests should measure mathematical skill, verbal fluency and comprehension, memory, visual spatial ability and the ability to apply the fundamentals of reasoning and logic.

4. The average IQ score for men and women in the West is roughly the same and is defined as 100. Distribution of IQ and Standard deviation has been known to differ for the sexes.

5. IQ tests performed before age 16 may show considerable variation that is consistent with brain development. Scores after age 16 tend to settle down although they can vary on a day by day basis based on the mood of the taker.

6. The Gold Standard for IQ Tests is the Weschler Test that can be administered for both adults and children. It is comprised of 11 sub-tests that provide both a Verbal and a Non-Verbal Score. It is administered on a one-by-one basis. Other Tests used are the Stanford-Binet and Cattell (in the UK). Many school boards use IQ tests that have been developed on a national or local level.

7. IQ scores are meaningless unless the Standard Deviation for the Bell Shaped (Gaussian DistributionI is given). Weschler uses a Standard Deviation of 15 so that a score of just over 130 places a person in the top 2% of the population (this is both the cutoff for most school gifted programs and MENSA).

8. Taking Internet IQ tests are a waste of time as there is no consistent methodology inherent in the norming of these tests.

9. The Average IQ of a University student in the US is about 113. IQ scores for students attending more demanding programs are considerably higher than those in less challenging programs.Differences can vary by 20 points.

10. Old versions of the SAT correlated well with IQ scores but today's version of the SAT is no longer seen as an adequate reflection of IQ.

11. There is a correlation between work occupation and average IQ score that reflects the degree of cognitive challenge inherent in the job.

12. IQ scores have been increasing over time. This is known as the Flynn Effect. There are various explanations for this. The most common one is that student's are becoming more comfortable with this type of test.

13. There is a general positive correlation between High IQ and success at school/university.The correlation is a bit less positive when looking at High IQ and material success in life.

14. IQ tests should not be treated as a number that defines you for the rest of your life. A one off poor performance can be a function of many factors including Test Anxiety and should not write off expectations. One should use great care when reporting IQ information.

15. IQ tests are much better at testing convergent thinking (thinking towards one right answer) and don't assess for the most part one's imaginative ability or propensity to philosophize (divergent thinking).

16. Models of Multiple Intelligence have been proposed by individuals such as Howard Gardiner but these have often been criticized for not being scientifically rigorous.The same is true of Robert Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence.

17. The Earliest IQ Test was developed by Alfred Binet in France in 1904. Its primary function was to screen for low performing students.

18. IQ scores predictably follow a Bell curve for a large population sample Scores of above 150 (SD =15) corresponding to 1 person in a thousand are extremely rare.

19. People have a tendency to inflate their IQ scores for obvious reasons.

20. We do not know the vast majority of Famous people as most either lived before the test was invented or indeed never took the Test in the First Place. Nobody knows Albert Einstein's IQ as it is believed that he didn't even take such a test.