Western History 66: What were some examples of Gothic Architecture?

If ever you wish to reflect on the Brilliance of Western Civilization look no further than the great cathedrals that define Gothic Architecture. Majestic, tall and inspiring these incredible buildings revolutionized our collective heritage with a unique fusion of science, design, artistic flair and constructive brilliance. Gothic Architecture continued the tradition of representing a celestial paradise on Earth.

Gothic Architecture (a term coined during the Renaissance) emerged in and around 1140 and included such features as the pointed arch, ribbed vaults and the flying buttress. While most Gothic Architecture is often associated with Cathedrals and Abbeys there were many castles, palaces and town halls that were built in the Gothic style.

An early forerunner of Gothic Architecture was Romanesque with excellent examples seen in the Maria Laach Abbey, Turn Collegiate Church and Lessay Abbey.

Variations in Gothic style are shown in the pictures of the following buildings: Amiens, Canterbury, Chartres, Cologne, Lincoln, Reims, Saint-Chapelle, Sante Croce, Toledo Tours and Ulm.

Source: Westminster Cathedral

Life Form Types in a Speculative Universe

From my Book - History of the Future

(I used Hebrew Letters to name various regions of the galaxy).

Alumitoids: Aluminum-based organisms that are rigid in shape and have robotic features. Alumitoid bodies also have a high cellular magnesium and copper content. They are found mainly in the Dalet Region.

Casgains: Slime-like organisms composed of high fat and cholesterol superstructures, they originated in the Forbasch and Plamtoes zones of the Galaxy’s Hey region.

Diamanoids: A very dense carbon-based crystalline life form. Most diamanoids can metamorphose into graphite if necessary.

Fiticites: These iridium-based life forms often have pointed or jagged shapes.

Glymoids: These creatures have a crystalline structure that can take on a tetrahedral or icosahedrons form.

Hosgramins: Hydrogen-helium organisms, their sub-atomic interactions lead to alpha decay that provides energy for their metabolism.

Javolites: Sulfur-based organisms that use iodine and astatine to form cellular networks.

Mesomorphoids: These “super elastic organisms” are composed chiefly of bringbew, an inorganic, stretchable compound.

Nugoids: Organisms composed of a radioactive matrix, Nugoids are rich in elements from the lanthanide and actinide series of the periodic table.

Oragamin: Life forms based on a germanium version of DNA known as oragat. Oragamins are found largely in the Crstam zone of the Kuph region.

Organoid: A group of organic-based life forms, including Humanoids. Organoids are found throughout the Galaxy.

Percotoids: Living entities containing the rare compound percitonic acid. Percotonic acid acts as an agent for metabolism, forming molecular complexes that react selectively with various biochemicals to sustain life.

Pyres: Fire-like organisms that continuously ignite an external chemical source, usually on the skin, to yield energy. Pyres are often surrounded by an oscillating flame that resembles an energy halo.

Rigmoid: These organisms have an intricate three dimensional structure and a complex indefinable shape. The chemical rigmoinix, present in large amounts in the Zayen Region, acts as the linking agent holding their body structure together.

Rltoes: These organisms have a high degree of life specialization in both the structure and functioning of individual body parts. This feature is maintained through the manipulation of gyman particles.

Safamin: Specialized life forms that use the noble gases (neon, argon and radon) for biochemical functioning.

Trygoes: Silicon-cellulose organisms that use plasto-electric charges for mobility. They reproduce through a complicated diffusion-regulated technique of ion exchange.

Urltoids: Giant organisms (often thirty metres in height) composed of ultra-light trachyan fibres (silver oxides with garmium molecules). Most urltoids live in suspension approximately fifty metres above their specific planetary surfaces.

Zytins: Energy-matter life forms, Zytins can convert from one an energy to a matter life form and back again depending on their environmental constraints.

Western History 65: Who were the Vikings?

The Vikings were a population of traders, raiders and settlers of Scandinavian origin (includes the Norse and the Danes) who played an important role in European history from the 8^th to the 11^th century. A pagan population with a distinct mythology, language system and writing the Vikings established many colonies throughout Europe and systematically influenced the geo-political development of the continent. The Viking heritage is scene throughout Europe in the place names, wood carvings, musical instrument development, coinage and literature. Norse mythology is pervasive in European culture. A Timeline of Key Events in Viking history is outlined below.

A Timeline of Viking History

789 – Vikings begin attacks on England

840 – City of Dublin, Ireland founded by the Vikings
862 -  Russian colony in Novgorod established by Viking Rus Ulrich.

866 – Vikings set up colony in York, England

871 – Alfred the Great halts Viking advance in England

879 – Kiev set up a centre of Viking domain (Kievan Rus)

900 – Vikings raid Mediterranean Sea

911 – Viking colony in Normandy established

981 – Erik the Red discovers Greenland

986 – Vikings reach Newfoundland waters.

995 – Norway becomes a Christian country. Christianity will spread to both Iceland and Greenland.

1002 – Irish under Brian Boru defeat Vikings

c. 1010 – Viking settlement in North America established. Leif Ericsson, the son of Eric the Red, is the founder. Territory is known as Vinland – colony located at L’Anse aux Meadows (Canada). Lief had already converted to Christianity by this date.

1013 – Danes conquer England

1028 – Knut (or Canute) rules as king of England, Norway and Denmark. Zenith of Viking power.

1050 – Founding of the City of Oslo in Norway.

1066 – Viking power deteriorates after the defeat of Harald Hadrada at the Battle of Stamford Bridge.

Source: Vikings with zest

Western History 64: Who were the Normans?

The Normans were a Scandinavian population group (of possible Danish, Icelandic and Norwegian extraction) who settled the region of France known as Normandy. Their name refers to their Norse origin and they are believed to have descended from pirates and raiders who settled the region under the leader Rollo.

It was Rollo, who swore an oath of fealty to a French crown as represented by Charles III of West Francia and over generations the Norse population mixed with the local Franco-Romans to produce the distinct Norman culture.

The Norman rulers were strict feudalists who raided as far south as Sicily and Cyprus, Eastward into the Levant, north into England and West to the Canary Islands. Famous Norman political figures included Richard I (who along with his brother took Sicily from the Muslims), Bohemond I and William the Conqueror. Their culture is most associated with Romanesque Architecture, a lively musical tradition and visual artwork that included illuminated manuscripts and tapestries.

English history was profoundly impacted by the Normans following the successful Invasion of the Home Country by troops loyal to Duke of Normandy, William, in 1066.   William defeated his Saxon rival Harold Godwinson (aka Haold II) at the Battle of Hastings, following Harold’s speedy advance southwards after he himself had defeated the Norwegian king Harald Hadrada at the Battle of Stamford Bridge.

William (also known as William the Bastard) would later be known as William the Conqueror. He would consolidate power in England and rule as the First Norman King until 1087. His reign is associated with the compilation of the famed Domesday Book (A manuscript/survey/census of much of England/Wales at the time), a growth in Norman based feudalism, the revolt of the Earls and fighting with his oldest son Robert. He was responsible though for the building of the White Tower (the old keep) which forms part of the Tower of London.

William the Conqueror

Western History 63: Who were some of the Anglo-Saxon monarchs of note?

The various English Kingdoms were ruled from the 5^th to the 11^th century by Monarchs of Anglo-Saxon origin. England was not a United land for much of this time and was comprised of the Kingdoms of East Anglia, Essex, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Wessex, Sussex (also known as the Heptarchy). Minor kingdoms such as Lindsey and Ynys Weith existed as well with many of these regions controlled by tribal chiefs and petty warlords.

Danish invaders made incursion into the Northern Kingdoms conquering territory that eventually became known as Danelaw with Danegeld often sought by the kings (in the form of a tax) to raise funds to protect against these Danish invaders. Some of the more important Saxon Kings are listed in Table 13 along some of the events that characterized their reign.

Table 13 Seven Saxon Kings

  

Monarch Name	Events of Note
Aethelbald (d. 757)	King of Mercia. During his realm Mercia would grow to dominate other Kingdoms.
Offa of Mercia (d. 796)	Consolidated control of the Midlands. Strengthened Christian tradition
Egbert of Wessex (d. 839)	Victor over the Mercians. Rise of Wessex superiority.
Alfred the Great (b. 849- d. 899)	Arguably the Greatest Saxon Monarch. King of Wessex from 871. Defeated the Vikings (Battle of Edington), improved the legal system, built up the navy and ruled during a prosperous time. He was also responsible for reforming Education.
Aethalstan (d. 939 )	King who united the Heptarchy into the Kingdom of England. Victor at the Battle of Brunabburh over Norse-Scottish Alliance.
Aethelred the Unready (d. 1016)	Was king during the defeat at the hands of the Vikings at Maldon in 991. Payment of the Danegeld to the Vikings would be required. Danish king Cnut would take power in England in 1016.
Edward the Confessor (d.1066)	Last King of the House of Wessex.  Ruled from 1042-1066. His death resulted in the succession crisis that eventually resulted in the end of Saxon rule and the rise of Norman Power.

Western History 62: Who was Otto the Great?

The sons of Louis the Pious (Charlemagne’s heir) warred with their father for much of the 820s and 830s. In 843 the Treaty of Verdun was signed and most of Charlemagne’s vast territory was divided between the sons with Louis the German receiving West, Middle and East Francia.  Various German monarchs following Louis held the title Holy Roman Emperor – a Primus inter pares title (first amongst equals) that often carried more prestige than power.

The most competent of these monarchs was Otto I also known as Otto the Great who ruled as king from 936-972 and was Holy Roman Emperor from 962.  It was Otto, the Duke of Saxony and King of Germany (and founder of the Ottonian dynasty), who defeated the pagan Magyars (Hungarians) at Lechfeld earning himself a title as a Christian savior.

He was crowned at the Old Basilica in Rome and followed in the footsteps of Charlemagne by continuing the literacy and cultural renaissance of the former. He improved relations with the Byzantines and consolidated power in Germany. During Otto’s day the Kingdom of Germany consisted of Saxony, Franconia, Bavaria and Swabia. Although he had conflicts with France, the Danish and Italian kingdoms his years of rule represented a high point in German history and his ability to use the church to further his strength was brilliant in the way that it played into his favour at the expense of the secular nobility.

City States of a Future Earth

From my Book - History of the Future

What follows is a list of ten major city states that played dominant roles in both the political and economic affairs of the city state period. Population numbers are based on 2180 census figures, unless otherwise notes.

Atlanta: As the capital of the influential Free States of Southern America, Atlanta grew to become the largest commercial and information center in the Western Hemisphere. A large population influx from the less viable economic regions of North America increased the population of Atlanta from fewer than 10 million in 2050 to 97 million, recorded almost a century later.

Berlin: Another service orientated city state, Berlin gained prominence for its highly innovative, organized and well-respected aerospace and technological design programs. Population: 86 million.

Calcutta: The Pearl of India was a shining example illustrating the positive transformation of a once poverty stricken urban sprawl into a relatively affluent modern city. Calcutta’s city planners revitalized the megalopolis through the wholehearted adaptation of the Biotron system. The city served as a center for micro-electronic production. Population: 157 million.

Kinshasa: The largest city in Africa, Kinshasa’s population surpassed that of Cairo in 2105. Kinshasa existed as the center for global textile production during the city state period. Population: 123 million.

Lima: Rapid population growth allowed this former Peruvian capital to become the second largest urban region in South America. Lima was noted for its vast factory resources primarily concerned with heavy industry such as mineral processing and alloy manufacturing. Population: 119 million.

Los Angeles: As the second largest city in North America, Los Angeles surpassed the population of Mexico City in 2075. The city’s survival was dependent on its production of luxury items, however, it continued to exist as an entertainment Mecca. Population: 114 million.  

Moscow: Although tightly controlled for over forty years by the semi-autocratic Neo-Muscovite Party, Moscow grew in size and importance in the early twenty-second century, when its strategic position between Asia and Europe allowed the city state to assume the role of a Trans-regional Trading Center. Population: 132 million.

New York: The return of a high incidence of crime in this densely populated city state, forced local authorities to adapt draconian strategies. Nevertheless, the city continued to function as a leading commercial and corporate advertising region thanks to its extensive global computer linkup with the outside world. Greater New York in the twenty-second century spread southward to include regions of the Eastern seaboard, like Baltimore, Philadelphia and Washington. Population: 129 million.    

Tientsin: Large peasant migrations from the rural areas of China dramatically increased the population of Tientsin. The migrations were inspired by the movement towards scientific urban-based food farms during the late twenty-first century. Tientsin surpassed both Beijing and Shanghai in overall population in 2124 and 2133 respectively, to become the dominant Chinese city state. Tientsin was also noted for its Nutrition Allocation Units (NAUs) that helped coordinate food distribution programs throughout much of the Far East. Population: 169 million.

Tokyo: A city described by Australian-born poet Fergus Hayden as a “Concrete Jungle incubating in a Steel Receptacle,” Tokyo served as the leading center of medical research on Earth, but was also admired for its diverse economy. Tokyo had the highest population density of all major city states.

Population: 181 million.