Western History 34: What were the principle wars that plagued Classic Greece?

The Greeks were challenged by the superpower that was Persian but emerged with independence after securing victories at Marathon (490 BCE), Salamis (480 BCE) , Plataea (479 BCE)  and Mycale (479 BCE) . A brief setback at Thermoplylae (480 BCE) almost spelt doom but Grecian resourcefulness would save the civilization. In fact the Athenian dominated Delian League would eventually take the War to the Persians own backyard in Asia itself.

City-states frequently clashed as their geopolitical and economic interests overlapped. Alliances and Leagues were formed and the Greek city-states were weakened by a cycle of recurring wars. The Spartans and Athenians fought the Peloponnesian Wars between 431-404 BC which ended in the eventual victory of the Spartans and the dissolution of Athens and its allies (the Delian League). However Spartan’s hegemony was short lived and they in turn would be weakened by a coalition of Greek states that included Thebes, Corinth, Argos and Athens itself during the inconclusive Corinthian War (395-387 BC).

Western History 33: What were the Greek contributions to Drama and Sport?

Greek thinking was driven by an intense rationalism but they were also great dramatists. The Western play and its initial division into tragedies and comedies derives from a Greek understanding that was reflected in the works of Aeschylus, Phyrnichus, Sophocles and Eurpides (all in the tragedies) and Menader, Plautus and Aristophanes (in the comedies). Comedy itself was divided into the three periods: Old (Satyr), Middle and New. The Thirty Dramatic Situations, outlined by French writer Georges Polti (in the late 19^th century) categorizes all dramatic situations and is derived from an analysis of the Greek texts.

The Olympic games represented the pinnacle of Athletic achievement in the Greek World.  776 BCE is cited at the earliest date for these Games and they continued until 394 CE when the Christian Roman Emperor Theodosius I banned them. The games were held in honour of the Greek God Zeus and were shrouded in mythology. A military truce remained in effect for the duration of the Games that were held every four years (the inter-Olympic Time period was known as the Olympiad). Some key events that characterized the games included the foot race, chariot race, discus/javelin throws, jumping, running with armour, wrestling and boxing.

Personal Reflection I: Think for Yourself

Over the years I have learnt that all issues are not as clear cut as their champions make them out to be and in virtually every case your personal take is at best the optimum stance using the pertinent information available at the time. While it is necessary to have principles it is equally important to listen to contradictory standpoints, which is why the free flow of ideas is so critical to any debate. I have changed my stance over the years on several issues and will likely do so in the future.

While my tendency is to favour positions on the center-right of the political spectrum it certainly doesn't define my take on every issue (not by a long way). However I have noticed over the years that the moment one favours a particular left-right position on a single topic people naturally assume that you have to buy into the rest of the smorgasbord of ideas associated with that side of the political spectrum. This is ridiculous and incredibly short-sighted. While some people may order off a set menu of positions associated with a certain ideology I certainly don't and will continue to advocate for the most important of all notions ie. Think for Yourself.

Western History 32: How did Art develop in Ancient Greece?

The Greek contribution to Western Art cannot be understated. In fact its impact appears globally especially in the Hellenic Period is significant influencing cultures as disparate as India and Japan. Areas of strength centered on sculpture and architecture. The following table is a sample of several distinct styles that were introduced with specific examples that exemplify each one of them. This table is not intended to be inclusive of all styles (which is a vast field on its own) but is more of an appetizer for a great tradition.

Table 9 Some Mainstays of Greek Art and Architecture

Style Type	Style Example	Point of Note
Black-Figure Technique also Sister Red-Figure Technique	Pottery techniques are seen on many amphoras and Bowls. Artists were often skilled slaves. Various rich collections in museums across Europe (particular Munich and Berlin).	Pottery Styles popular between the early 7th century BC going forward to 530 BC.
Monumental Sculpture – Three Periods – Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic.	Archaic c. 700-500 BCE eg. Lady of Auxerre Classical c. 500-300 BCE Emphasis on Naturalistic Form. Eg. Venus Braschi by Praxiteles Hellenistic – c. 300 BCE-100 BCE. Blending of cultures. More diverse portfolios eg.Winged Victory of Samothrace, Greco-Buddhist frieze at Gandhara and the Venus De Milo.	Sculptures were made of a high quality limestone and were carved using metal implements. Some were free standing. Others served as reliefs. Bronze sculptures made use of the Lost wax technique.
Wall Painting + Panel Painting	Symposium Scene – Tomb of the Diver at Paestum. Pitsa Panels	Often used in Grave decorations as well as resident and Temple Walls, Greek Wall Painting span a time scale going from the Minoan Age to the onset of the Hellenic
Polychromy – Painting on Stonework.	Trojan archers from the Temple of Aphaia, Aegina.	Painting made use of bright colours and were designed to enhance the visual appeal of the Architecture.
Coin Design	Macedonian tetradrachm with image of Heracles.	Not seen by the Greeks as a major art form but its presence is noteworthy. Extensive use of portraits. Many techniques were borrowed from the Persians.
Architecture	Three defined order differentiated by Column Type Doric (Earliest form) – Simple circular capitals at the top of columns eg. Parthenon Triglyphs/Temple of the Delians. Ionic – column capitals contain volutes (spirals) eg. Erectheum. Corinthian (Latest form)  - Ornate capitals. Impacted Renaissance Art. eg. Arch at Ancona/Column at Phocas.	Tremendous tradition that spans the period from 900 BCE to 100 CE.  Strong emphasis on Temples, open air theatres, monuments and council buildings. Many buildings in the US have coped these Greek styles with respect to columns eg. Western and Southern Life Insurance Building in Cincinnati.

Western History 31: What scientists were influential in Ancient Greece?

Greek rationalism did not restrict itself to pure philosophy and mathematics but to the real of natural philosophy or as what we know today – Science.  Table 8 indicates some key achievements

Table 8 Greek Scientists

Name of Scientist	Contribution
Archimedes of Syracuse	Determined the Law of the Lever and the famed Archimedes Principle in Fluid Mechanics that carries his name. Also contributed to hydraulics and optics.
Aristarchus of Samos	Presented what was probably one of the earliest Heliocentric models of the universe.
Aristotle	Often believed to be the first scientist. Aristotle made use of formal logic to understand the natural sciences. He also placed much emphasis on perception and wrote opinions across a wide variety of scientific disciplines. Although much of his work failed to withstand the rigours of more focused experimentation his contribution to the various fields form an integral part in the story of the emergence of science as a powerful mechanism to understand the universe.
Ctesibius	Father of Pneumatics. Renowned for his work with compressed air. Built a water clock.
Democritus	Together with his mentor Leucippus came up with the theory of the indivisible atom.
Hero of Alexandria	Most likely built the first steam-powered device.
Hippocrates	Father of Modern Medicine. Early advocate  of the systematic diagnostic method.
Meton of Athens	Pioneer in astronomy. Developed one of the earliest astronomical calendar calculators.
Ptolemy	Although superseded by the work of Nicholas Copernicus, Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei – Ptolemy’s development of the Geocentric model (as outlined in his work the Almagest) was the definitive astronomical model for over a thousand years in the West.
Theophrastus	Developed one of the earliest classification systems in Biology. He is considered the Father of Botany.

Allied Leadership doubts on their eventual victory in World War Two

Question Answered on Quora

Did the Allied leadership, especially in England and America, ever actually doubt their eventual victory in World War Two?

I believe that there was a time from May 1940 (Fall of France) to June 1941 (Operation Barbarossa) where there was considerable doubt in Britain in particular as to whether they could hold out against the Reich. 

During this period the US had not formally entered the war and the Soviets were actually supplying Germany with resources. The Italians went on the offense in the Mediterranean and Greece, Japan was having success in the East and morale was low in the UK following the very poor showing of the BEF forces in France and before that Norway. 

British success at the Battle of Britain, the oratory of Churchill and better showings in North Africa, the Mediterranean and Abyssinia went someway to allay this fear. However these were very dark days

What is Classic Liberalism?

Classic Liberalism (really just Liberalism…modern liberalism is essentially progressivism) is a political philosophy that emerged during the Age of Reason in 17th century England. At its core it is centered on the notion of liberty.

 The philosophy emphasizes the necessary exchange of ideas, free speech, openness to debates, free markets, private ownership of property and the rule of law. Classic Liberals value a democracy or republic built on a foundation of scientific rationalism, empiricism and healthy skepticism. Individual rights sit at the cornerstone of classic liberalism.